Stylistic Semasiology


Lexico-semantic
Stylistic Devices
 LECTURE 4. STYLISTICS OF THE ENGLISH
LANGUAGE SEMASIOLOGY

Stylistics semasiology is concerned with meanings of

linguistic units, their interaction and changes they
undergo when used as expressive means and stylistic
devices.
Semasiological means of stylistics

Expressive means Stylistic devices

figures of substitution figures of combination
In the process of human development new notions
appear.
However there exists a tendency to economy of language
means which leads to secondary nomination.
Secondary nomination is the use of existing words or
word-combinations for denoting new or existing
concepts.

Human conceptual system plays a central role in

defining everyday realities. Since communication is
based on the same conceptual system that we use
thinking and acting, any language is an important source
of evidence for what that system is like.
Human thought processes are largely metaphorical.
The human conceptual system is metaphorically structured and
designed (Lakoff George, Johnson Mark, Turner Mark).
Example:
Life is a journey.

Figures of substitution

figures of quantity figures of qualification

hyperbole meiosis metonymy metaphor irony

litotes - synecdoche - epithet
- periphrasis - antonomasia
- euphemisms - personification
- allegory
Figures of quantity are based on comparison of 2
objects having some quantitative similarities:
 sizes

 dimensions

 age

 shape, etc.
Hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration of a
certain quality of an object or phenomenon

 Hyperbole can be expressed by all notional parts of

speech

 The most typical cases of expression are: by

pronouns, by numerical nouns, by adverbs of time

 In Ukrainian the ways of expression are as follows:

by pronouns, by numerical nouns, by intensifying
adverbs, by adverbs of time, place
 Hyperbole may be the final effect of other stylistic
devices: metaphor, similie, irony

 Hyperbole mounts the expressiveness of speech

MEIOSIS

 This figure of quantity is opposite in meaning to

hyperbole

 Meiosis is a deliberate diminution of a certain quality

of an object or phenomenon
 Meiosis underlines insignificance of such qualities of
objects and phenomena as their size, volume,
distance, time, shape, etc.

 The domain of meiosis is colloquial speech

 Meiosis makes speech expressive

Litotes is a specific variant of meiosis

 Litotes has a peculiar syntactic structure

 It is a combination of the negative particle "not" and a

word with negative meaning or a negative prefix

 Such a combination makes positive sense

 Litotes is used in all functional styles of English

 Litotes extenuates positive qualities of objects or

phenomena

 It makes statements and judgments sound delicate

and diplomatic

 It also expresses irony

Metonymy is transference of a name of one
object to another object

 Metonymic transference of names is based upon the

principle of contiguity of the two objects

 Metonymy is expressed by nouns, less frequently ‒

by substantivized numerals

 The syntactic functions and positions of metonymic

words are those of the subject, object and
predicative
 Metonymy may be lexical and contextual (genuine)

 Lexical metonymy is a source of creating new words

or new meanings

 Lexical metonymy is devoid of stylistic information

 Contextual metonymy is the result of unexpected

substitution of one word for another in speech

 It is fresh and expressive

 Stylistic metonymy builds up imagery, points out this

or another feature of the object described, etc.
SYNECDOCHE
 This variety of metonymy is realized in two variants.

 The first variant is naming the whole object by

mentioning part of it

 The second variant of synecdoche is using the name

of the whole object to denote a constituent part of
this object
PERIPHRASIS
 This variety of metonymy is the replacement of a direct
name of a thing or phenomenon by the description of
some quality of this thing or phenomenon

 Periphrasis intensifies a certain feature of the object

described

 It stands close to metonymy because it is one more way

to rename objects
 There are such types of periphrasis as logical and
figurative

 Logical periphrasis is based upon one of the inherent

properties of the object

 Figurative periphrasis is based upon metaphor or

metonymy

 Periphrasis performs a cognitive function: it deepens our

knowledge of the objective world
EUPHEMISM
 It is a word or word-combination which is used to
replace an unpleasantly sounding word or word-
combination

 Euphemism might be viewed as periphrasis: they

have the same mechanism of formation

 Strictly speaking, euphemisms are not stylistic

devices but expressive means of language: most of
them are registered in dictionaries
 Euphemisms may be classified according to the
spheres of their application and grouped the
following way:
 Religious euphemisms
 Moral euphemisms
 Medical euphemisms
 Political euphemisms

 Euphemisms make speech more polite, delicate,

acceptable in a certain situation
 Euphemisms have their antipodes which might be
called disphemisms

 Disphemisms are conspicuously rough, rude and

impolite words and word-combinations.

 The speaker resorts to disphemisms to express his

negative emotions, such as irritation, hate, scorn,
mockery, animosity

 animosity [ˌænɪ'mɒsɪtɪ] ворожість, злоба

Metaphor is the second figure of quality

 Metaphor is the result of transference of the name of

one object to another object

 However, metaphoric transference is of different

nature: it is based upon similarity of the objects (not
contiguity)
 The nature of metaphor is versatile, and metaphors
may be classified according to a number of
principles:

 According to the pragmatic effect produced upon the

addressee metaphors are subdivided into trite (or
dead) and genuine (or original)

 Original metaphors are created in speech by

speakers' imagination
 According to the degree of their stylistic potential
metaphors are classified into nominational, cognitive
and imaginative (or figurative)

 Nominational metaphors do not render any stylistic

information

 They are intended to name new objects or

phenomena of the objective world

 A nominational metaphor is a purely technical device

of nomination, when a new notion is named by
means of the old vocabulary
 Imaginative metaphors are occasional and individual

 Metaphors may be also classified according to their

structure (or according to complexity of image
created)

 There are such metaphors as simple (or elementary)

and prolonged (or sustained)

 A simple metaphor consists of a single word or word-

combination expressing indiscrete notion
 A sustained metaphor appears in cases when a word
which has been used metaphorically makes other
words of the sentence or paragraph also realize their
metaphoric meanings

 A sustained metaphor is a sequence of simple

metaphors, most of which are cognitive

 This chain of simple metaphors unfolds the meaning

of the first, initial metaphor
 Metaphor is one of the most powerful means of
creating images

 Its main function is aesthetic

 Its natural sphere of usage is poetry and elevated

prose
 Canonized metaphors tend to become symbols

 A symbol is an object which stands for something

else

 It is a reference in speech or in writing which is made

to stand for ideas, feelings, events, or conditions

 A symbol is usually something tangible or specific

which evokes something abstract
Epithets are such attributes which describe
objects expressively

 It is essential to differentiate between logical

attributes and epithets proper

 Logical attributes are objective and non-evaluating

 Epithets proper are subjective and evaluating, mostly
metaphorical

 These qualities make epithets expressive

 Epithets may be classified on the basis of their
semantic and structural properties

 Semantically, epithets fall into two groups: epithets

associated with the nouns modified and epithets not
associated with the nouns modified

 Associated epithets point out typical features of the

objects which they describe

 Such typical features are implied by the meaning of

the nouns themselves
 Unassociated epithets ascribe such qualities to
objects which are not inherent in them

 As a result of this, metaphors emerge fresh,

unexpected, original and expressive
 Unassociated epithets may be called "speech
epithets" because they are created right in the
process of communication

 Associated epithets are mostly language epithets

 Their use with certain nouns has become traditional

and stable

 Thus, they are language-as-a-system elements

 As for their structural composition, epithets are
divided into simple, compound, phrasal and clausal

 Simple epithets are ordinary adjectives

 Compound epithets are expressed by compound

adjectives

 Phrasal epithets are expressed by word-

combinations of quotation type

 Clausal epithets are expressed by sentences

ANTONOMASIA
 This variety of metaphor is based upon the principle
of identification of human beings with things which
surround them

 People may be identified with other people, with

animals, with inanimate objects and natural
phenomena
 When the speaker resorts to antonomasia, he
creates the so-called "talking names" which aim at
depicting certain traits of human character: moral
and psychological features, peculiarities of
behaviour, outlook, etc.
PERSONIFICATION

 When the speaker ascribes human behaviour,

thoughts and actions to inanimate objects, he resorts
to the stylistic device of personification
ALLEGORY
 Factually, allegory is antonomasia

 The only difference between them lies in their usage:

the domain of allegory is not a sentence but the
whole text (a logically completed narration of facts or
events)

 There are allegoric tales and fables, stories and

novels
IRONY
 This figure of quality is realized when the speaker
intentionally breaks the principle of sincerity of
speech

 Ironically used words acquire meanings opposite to

their primary language meanings: ironical good
means bad, enough means not enough, pleased
means displeased, etc.
 Though irony is a contextual stylistic device, there
exist words and word-combinations which convey
ironical meaning out of context
 In order to help the addressee decode irony the
speaker often resorts to appropriate intonation and
gestures

 Irony is generally used to convey a negative meaning

or emotion: irritation, regret, dissatisfaction,
disappointment, displeasure, etc.