Industrial Instrumentation

Ch.E- 401
2 Level Measurement Methods
 Level gauges
 Float Type
 Hydrostatic pressure
 Displacement
 Echo
 Weight
 Capacitive
 Radiation

Industrial Instrumentation
 Displacement Level Measurement
3

 Displacer level instruments exploit Archimedes’ Principle to detect

liquid level by continuously measuring the weight of an object (called
the displacer ) immersed in the process liquid. As liquid level increases,
the displacer experiences a greater buoyant force, making it appear
lighter to the sensing instrument, which interprets the loss of weight as
an increase in level and transmits a proportional output signal.

Industrial Instrumentation
4 Buoyant-force instruments
 Displacer level instruments exploit Archimedes’ Principle to detect
liquid level by continuously measuring the weight of an object (called
the displacer ) immersed in the process liquid. As liquid level increases,
the displacer experiences a greater buoyant force, making it appear
lighter to the sensing instrument, which interprets the loss of weight as
an increase in level and transmits a proportional output signal.

Industrial Instrumentation
 Buoyant-force instruments
5
 The displacer itself is usually a sealed metal tube, weighted
sufficiently so it cannot float in the process liquid. It hangs within a
pipe called a “cage” connected to the process vessel through two
block valves and nozzles. These two pipe connections ensure the
liquid level inside the cage matches the liquid level inside the process
vessel, much like a sightglass.

It should be noted that static

pressure inside the vessel will
have negligible effect on a
displacer instrument’s accuracy.
The only factor that matters is
the density of the process fluid,
since buoyant force is directly
proportional to fluid density (F =
γV )

Industrial Instrumentation
 Buoyant-force instruments
6
 Disassembled Level-Trol
displacer instrument appear
here, showing how the
displacer fits inside the cage
pipe
 The cage pipe is coupled to
the process vessel through
two block valves, allowing
isolation from the process. A
drain valve allows the cage to
be emptied of process liquid
for instrument service and
zero calibration.

Industrial Instrumentation
 Buoyant-force instruments
7
 Some displacer-type level sensors do not use a cage, but rather hang
the displacer element directly in the process vessel. These are called
“cageless” sensors.
 Cageless instruments are of course simpler than cage-style
instruments, but they cannot be serviced without de-pressurizing
(and perhaps even emptying) the process vessel in which they
reside.
 They are also susceptible to measurement errors and “noise” if the
liquid inside the vessel is agitated, either by high flow velocities in
and out of the vessel, or by the action of motor-turned impellers
installed in the vessel to provide thorough mixing of the process
liquid(s).

Industrial Instrumentation
 Buoyant-force instruments-Calibration
8
 Full-range calibration may be performed by flooding the cage with
process liquid (a wet calibration), or by suspending the displacer with a
string and precise scale (a dry calibration), pulling upward on the
displacer at just the right amount to simulate buoyancy at 100% liquid
level:
 According to Archimedes’ Principle, buoyant force is always equal to
the weight of the fluid volume displaced. In the case of a displacer-based
level instrument at full range, this usually means the entire volume of
the displacer element is submerged in the liquid. Simply calculate the
volume of the displacer (if it is a cylinder, V = πr2l, where r is the
cylinder radius and l is the cylinder length) and multiply that volume by
the weight density (γ):

Industrial Instrumentation
 Torque tubes
9
 A solid, horizontal, metal rod with a flange at one end and a perpendicular lever
at the other end. The flange is mounted to a stationary surface, and a weight
suspended from the end of the lever.
 The downward force of the weight acting on the lever imparts a twisting force
(torque) to the rod, causing it to slightly twist along its length.
 Applied to a displacer-type level instrument, a displacer takes the place of the
weight at the lever’s end, the torsional deflection of this rod serving to indicate
buoyant force. As liquid rises, buoyant force on the displacer increases, making
the displacer seem lighter from the rod’s perspective. The rod’s slight motion
resulting from this apparent weight change, then, indicates liquid level.

Industrial Instrumentation
 Torque tubes
10

From this illustration, the torque tube serves three

distinct purposes when applied to a displacer-type
level measurement application:
(1) to serve as a torsional spring suspending the
weight of the displacer,
(2) to seal off process fluid pressure from the
position-sensing mechanism,
(3) to transfer motion from the far end of the torque
tube into the sensing mechanism.

Industrial Instrumentation
11
Displacement interface level measurement

 Displacer level instruments may be used to measure liquid-liquid

interfaces just the same as hydrostatic pressure instruments. One
important requirement is that the displacer always be fully
submerged (“flooded”).
 Calculating buoyant force on a displacer element due to a
combination of two liquids is not as difficult as it may sound.
Archimedes’ Principle still holds: that buoyant force is equal to the
weight of the fluid(s) displaced. All we need to do is calculate the
combined weights and volumes of the displaced liquids to calculate
buoyant force.

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12
Displacement interface level measurement

 For a two-liquid interface, the buoyant force is equal to the sum of

the two liquid weights displaced, each liquid weight term being
equal to the weight density of that liquid multiplied by the displaced
volume of that liquid

Industrial Instrumentation
13
Displacement interface level measurement

 Suppose we have a displacer instrument measuring the interface

level between two liquids having specific gravities of 0.850 and
1.10, with a displacer length of 30 inches and a displacer diameter of
2.75 inches (radius = 1.375 inches).

Industrial Instrumentation
14 Level Measurement Methods
 Level gauges
 Float Type
 Hydrostatic pressure
 Displacement
 Echo
 Weight
 Capacitive
 Radiation

Industrial Instrumentation
15 Echo based level measurement
 A completely different way of measuring liquid level in vessels is to
bounce a traveling wave off the surface of the liquid – typically from
a location at the top of the vessel – using the time-of-flight for the
waves as an indicator of distance, and therefore an indicator of liquid
height inside the vessel.
 The single most important factor to the accuracy of any echo-based
level instrument is the speed at which the wave travels en route to
the liquid surface and back. This wave propagation speed is as
fundamental to the accuracy of an echo instrument as liquid density
is to the accuracy of a hydrostatic or displacer instrument.

Industrial Instrumentation
16
Ultrasonic level measurement
 Ultrasonic level instruments measure the distance from the
transmitter to the surface of a process material located farther
below/above using reflected sound waves. The frequency of these
waves extend beyond the range of human hearing, which is why they
are called ultrasonic.
 The calibration of an ultrasonic level transmitter depends on the
speed of sound through the medium between the transducer and the
interface.

Industrial Instrumentation
17
Ultrasonic level measurement
 The time-of-flight for a sound pulse indicates this distance, and is
interpreted by the transmitter electronics as process level. These
transmitters may output a signal corresponding either to the fullness
of the vessel (fillage) or the amount of empty space remaining at the
top of a vessel (ullage).

Industrial Instrumentation
18
Ultrasonic level measurement
 For top-mounted transducers, this is the speed of sound through the
air (or vapor) over the liquid, since this is the medium through which
the incident and reflected wave travel time is measured.
 For bottom-mounted transducers, this is the speed of sound through
the liquid.
 In either case, to ensure good accuracy, one must make sure the
speed of sound through the “timed” travel path remains reasonably
constant (or else compensate for changes in the speed of sound
through that medium by use of temperature or pressure
measurements and a compensating algorithm).
 Ultrasonic level instruments enjoy the advantage of being able to
measure the height of solid materials such as powders and grains
stored in vessels, not just liquids. Again, the fundamental criterion
for detecting a level of material is that the densities above and below
the interface must differ (the greater the difference, the stronger the
echo).

Industrial Instrumentation
19 Some Challenges
 Certain challenges unique to these level measurement applications include low
material density (not causing strong reflections) and uneven profiles (causing
reflections to be scattered laterally instead of straight back to the ultrasonic
instrument.
 A classic problem encountered when measuring the level of a powdered or
granular material in a vessel is the angle of repose formed by the material as a
result of being fed into the vessel at one point:

Industrial Instrumentation
20 Radar Level Measurement
 Radar level instruments measure the distance from the transmitter
(located at some high point) to the surface of a process material
located farther below in much the same way as ultrasonic
transmitters – by measuring the time-of-flight of a traveling wave.
 The fundamental difference between a radar instrument and an
ultrasonic instrument is the type of wave used: radio waves instead
of sound waves.
 Radio waves are electromagnetic in nature (comprised of alternating
electric and magnetic fields), and very high frequency (in the
microwave frequency range – GHz).
 Sound waves are mechanical vibrations (transmitted from molecule
to molecule in a fluid or solid substance)and of much lower
frequency (tens or hundreds of kilohertz – still too high for a human
being to detect as a tone) than radio waves.

Industrial Instrumentation
21 Radar Level Measurement
 Some radar level instruments use waveguide “probes” to guide the
electromagnetic waves to and from the process liquid while others
send electromagnetic waves out through open space to reflect off the
process material. The instruments using waveguides are called
guided-wave radar instruments, whereas the radar instruments relying
on open space for signal propagation are called non-contact radar.

Industrial Instrumentation
 Non-contact radar instruments
22
 Non-contact radar instruments
rely on antennas to direct
microwave energy into the
vessel, and to receive the echo
(return) energy. These antennas
must be kept clean and dry,
which may be a problem if the
liquid being measured emits
condensible vapors. For this
reason, non-contact radar
instruments are often separated
from the vessel interior by
means of a dielectric window
(made of some substance that is
relatively “transparent” to
electromagnetic waves yet acts
as an effective vapor barrier):

Industrial Instrumentation
 Radar instrument’s Considerations
23
 Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light, 2.9979 × 108 m/s in a
perfect vacuum.
 The velocity of an electromagnetic wave through space depends on the
dielectric permittivity (symbolized by the Greek letter “epsilon,” ) of that
space.
 A formula relating wave velocity to relative permittivity (the ratio of a
substance’s permittivity to that of a perfect vacuum, symbolized as εr and
sometimes called the dielectric constant of the substance) and the speed of
light in a perfect vacuum (c) is shown here:

 the calibration of any echo-based level transmitter depends on knowing the

speed of wave propagation through the medium separating the instrument
from the process fluid interface. For radar transmitters sensing a single
liquid below a gas or vapor, this speed is the speed of light through that gas
or vapor space, which we know to be a function of electrical permittivity.

Industrial Instrumentation
 Radar instrument’s Considerations
24
 The relative permittivity of air at standard pressure and temperature is
very nearly unity (1).
 This means the speed of light in air under atmospheric pressure and
ambient temperature will very nearly be the same as it is for a perfect
vacuum (2.9979 × 108 m/s).
 If, however, the vapor space above the liquid is not ambient air, and is
subject to large changes in temperature and/or pressure, the permittivity
of that vapor may substantially change and consequently skew the speed
of light, and therefore the calibration of the level instrument. This
calibration shift is sometimes referred to as the gas phase effect.

Industrial Instrumentation
 Radar instrument’s Considerations
25
 The permittivity of any gas is related to both pressure and temperature by the
following formula:

 εr = Relative permittivity of a gas at a given pressure (P) and temperature (T)

 εref = Relative permittivity of the same gas at standard pressure (P ref ) and temperature (Tref
)
 P = Absolute pressure of gas (bars)
 Pref = Absolute pressure of gas under standard conditions (≈ 1 bar)
 T = Absolute temperature of gas (Kelvin)
 Tref = Absolute temperature of gas under standard conditions (≈ 273 K)
 From this equation, we can see that the permittivity of a gas increases with
increasing pressure, and decreases with increasing temperature. This means the
speed of light through a gas decreases with increasing pressure, and increases with
increasing temperature. For radar level instruments operating in gas environments
subject to significant pressure and temperature variations, the consequent variations
in the speed of light through that gas will compromise the instrument’s accuracy.

Industrial Instrumentation
 Radar instrument’s Considerations
26
 With ultrasonic level instruments, the
necessary condition for an echo to occur is
that the sound wave encounters a sudden
change in material density.
 With radar level instruments, the necessary
condition for wave reflection is a sudden
change in dielectric permittivity. When an
electromagnetic wave encounters a sudden
change in dielectric permittivity, some of
that wave’s energy will be reflected in the
Thus, radar level instruments
form of another wave traveling the function best when there is a
opposite direction, while the balance of the large difference in permittivity
wave’s energy continues forward to between the two substances at
propagate into the new material. the interface. As shown in the
previous illustration, air and
 The strength of the reflected signal depends water meet this criterion,
on how greatly the two materials’ having an 80:1 permittivity
permittivities differ ratio.

Industrial Instrumentation
 Laser Level Measurement
27
 The least-common form of echo-based level measurement is laser,
which uses pulses of laser light reflected off the surface of a liquid
to detect the liquid level.
 Perhaps the most limiting factor with laser measurement is the
necessity of having a sufficiently reflective surface for the laser
light to “echo” off of.
 Many liquids are not reflective enough for this to be a practical
measurement technique, and the presence of dust or thick vapors in
the space between the laser and the liquid will disperse the light,
weakening the light signal and making the level more difficult to
detect.

Industrial Instrumentation
 Laser Level Measurement
28
 In a magnetostrictive level
instrument, liquid level is
sensed by a lightweight,
donut-shaped float containing
a magnet. This float is
centered around a long metal
rod called a waveguide, hung
vertically in the process vessel
(or hung vertically in a
protective cage like the type
used for displacement-style
level instruments) so that the
float may rise and fall with
process liquid level.

Industrial Instrumentation
 Laser Level Measurement
29
 The magnetic field from the
float’s magnet at that point,
combined with the magnetic
field produced by an electric
current pulse periodically sent
through the rod, generates a
torsional stress pulse at the
precise location of the float.
This torsional (twisting) stress
travels at the speed of sound
through the rod toward either
end. At the bottom end is a
dampener device designed to
absorb the mechanical wave

Industrial Instrumentation
 Weight based Level Measurement
30
 Weight-based level instruments sense process level in a vessel by
directly measuring the weight of the vessel. If the vessel’s empty
weight (tare weight) is known, process weight becomes a simple
calculation of total weight minus tare weight.
 Obviously, weight-based level sensors can measure both liquid and
solid materials, and they have the benefit of providing inherently
linear mass storage measurement.
 Load cells (strain gauges bonded to a steel element of precisely
known modulus) are typically the primary sensing element of choice
for detecting vessel weight.
 As the vessel’s weight changes, the load cells compress or relax on a
microscopic scale, causing the strain gauges inside to change
resistance. These small changes in electrical resistance become a
direct indication of vessel weight.

Industrial Instrumentation
 Weight based Level Measurement
31
 The following photograph shows three bins used to store powdered milk, each one supported by
pillars equipped with load cells near their bases:
 When multiple load cells are used to measure the weight of a storage vessel, the signals from all
load cell units must be added together (“summed”) to produce a signal representative of the
vessel’s total weight. Simply measuring the weight at one suspension point is insufficient,
because one can never be sure the vessel’s weight is distributed equally amongst all the supports.

Industrial Instrumentation
 Weight based Level Measurement
32
 One very important caveat for weight-based level instruments is to isolate the vessel from any
external mechanical stresses generated by pipes or machinery. The following illustration shows a
typical installation for a weight-based measurement system, where all pipes attaching to the
vessel do so through flexible couplings, and the weight of the pipes themselves is borne by
outside structures through pipe hangers
 Stress relief is very important because any forces acting upon the storage vessel will be
interpreted by the load cells as more or less material stored in the vessel. The only way to ensure
that the load cell’s measurement is a direct indication of material held inside the vessel is to
ensure that no other forces act upon the vessel except the gravitational weight of the material.

Industrial Instrumentation
 Capacitance Level Instruments
33
 Capacitive level instruments measure electrical capacitance of a conductive rod
inserted vertically into a process vessel. As process level increases, capacitance
increases between the rod and the vessel walls, causing the instrument to output a
greater signal.
 The basic principle behind capacitive level instruments is the capacitance equation:

 The amount of capacitance exhibited between a metal rod inserted into the vessel
and the metal walls of that vessel will vary only with changes in permittivity (),
area (A), or distance (d). Since A is constant (the interior surface area of the vessel
is fixed, as is the area of the rod once installed), only changes in or d can affect the
probe’s capacitance.

Industrial Instrumentation
 Capacitance Level Instruments
34
 Capacitive level probes come in two
basic varieties: one for conductive
liquids and one for nonconductive
liquids.
 If the liquid in the vessel is
conductive, it cannot be used as the
dielectric (insulating) medium of a
capacitor.
 Consequently, capacitive level
probes designed for conductive
liquids are coated with plastic or
some other dielectric substance, so
the metal probe forms one plate of
the capacitor and the conductive
liquid forms the other:

Industrial Instrumentation
 Capacitance Level Instruments
35
 If the liquid is non-conductive, it may
be used as the dielectric itself, with the
metal wall of the storage vessel
forming the second capacitor plate. The
probe is just a bare metal cable or rod:
 In this style of capacitive level probe,
the variable is permittivity (ε), provided
the liquid has a substantially greater
permittivity than the vapor space above
the liquid. This means total capacitance
will be greatest when the vessel is full
(average permittivity is at a
maximum), and least when the vessel is
empty.

Industrial Instrumentation