Petroleum Instrumentation

NGT 160

Basics Instrumentation
Chapter 5
Electronic Automatic Controls
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Analog (p. 71-72)
• Assumes a basic knowledge of electricity and
electrical components.
• Electronic components and circuitry in a
voltage or current transmitter process a
sensor signal that the process variable creates
from the primary element (p. 6).
• Circuitry – wire, switches, resistors, inductors,
capacitors, power supplies, motors, etc.
• Electronics – transistor, integrated circuits,
microchips, operational amplifiers (op-amps),
etc.
Basic Electricity
• Electrical energy develops when electrons are forced to move in
unison in the same direction in a conductor.
• Without Electrical Pressure on the “sea“ of electrons they move
randomly inside the conductor.
• Electrical Pressure is called Voltage (V) or Electromotive Force (EMF).
• Electron motion in unison is called Current (I).
• Electrical friction causes heat in wire and components and is called
resistance (R).
UNITS
• Voltage or Electromotive Force (EMF) is measured in VOLTS (v).
• Current is measured in AMPS (a).
• Resistance is measured in OHMS (Ω).
Resistance, Voltage, and Current
 

This relationship is Ohm’s Law and is written as:

1.5
Single Phase AC Waveform
1

0.5
Voltage/Current

-1

Time/Phase Angle
Direct Current
• The first electrical circuits were Direct Current (DC) and the electricity was generated
by chemical methods, batteries.
• Most common method of supplying DC to loads is via AC to DC conversion.
• New methods of DC power generation now common include Fuel Cells and
Photocells.
• The most common applications include Instrumentation, control signals and
emergency power.
• Direct Current is represented below.

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
Voltage/Current

0.4
DC Waveform
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
2 3 2 6 2 92 2 2 5 2 8 2 1 2 4 2 7 2 0 2 3 2 6 2 9 2 2 2 5 2 8 2 1 2 4 2 7 2 0 2 3 2 6 2 9 2
1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 6

Time
 Inductance
• An electrical property that opposes a change
in current flow.
• Inductance stores energy in magnetic fields,
does not consume or create energy.
• If the current is constant, inductance has no
effect on the circuit.
• Even a single wire will have inductance, but
increasing the effect can be done by coiling
the wire.
 Inductors
• An electrical component that opposes a change in
current flow.
• Most simple type is simply a wire wrapped to
form many coils.
• The center can be ferrous or nonferrous metal,
plastic or just air.
• Coils can be found in motors, generators,
solenoids, relays, and inductors, lighting ballasts,
electromagnets.
• Another common application is to control current.
 Inductors
• Inductance (L) is measured in Henries (H or h)
Factors affecting L:
• Area enclosed by the coil, if area , then L .
• Number of turns on the coil, Turns , then L .
• If the length of the coil, length , then L .
• Finally, if the core material changes then L
changes. With an iron core L is higher
compared to an air core.
 Capacitance
• An electrical property that opposes a change
in EMF.
• Capacitance stores energy in electric fields,
does not consume or create energy.
• If the voltage is constant, capacitance has no
effect on the circuit.
• Even two wires separated by an insulator has
capacitance.
 Capacitors
• An electrical component that opposes a change in
voltage.
• Most simple type is simply conductors separated
by an insulator.
• The insulator can be a metal oxide, mica, plastic,
rubber or just air.
• Capacitors can be found in single phase motors,
amplifiers to block DC, power supplies for energy
storage and filtering.
• Another common application is to control voltage.
 Capacitors
• Capacitance (C) is measured in Farads (F or f)
Factors affecting F:
• Area of the conductors, if area , then C .
• Separation between the conductors,
Separation , then C .
• Finally, if the insulating material changes then
C changes. With a strong insulator (mica or
glass for example) C is higher compared to air
as an insulator.
Analog (p. 71)
• Assumes a basic knowledge of electricity and
electrical components.
• Refers to a signal (direct current) that is
continuous and has an infinite number of
points between its beginning and ending
values. (example bottom left p. 71)
• Analog signals are an analogy or a
representation of a process.
• Typically analog signals are either 4 to 20 ma
or 1 to 5 VDC.
• Or a 4 to 20 ma signal converted to a 1 to 5
VDC signal by using a 250 ohm resistor. (eq.
5.1)
Voltage (4 wire) vs. Current (2 wire) Transmitters
• Current signal is unaffected by length of the
wire, but a voltage signal is – line loss.
• Voltage transmitters are sensitive to
interference from external current or voltage
sources.
• Current transmitters are less sensitive to radio
frequency interference.
voltage
Operational Amplifiers (Op Amps) (p. 72)
• Are electronic devices in transmitters (slide 2)
that perform functions such as amplification,
comparison, addition, subtraction, integration
(or summing), and differentiation.
• Process variable range – full operating range
• Zero – minimum value
• Span – maximum value
• For example in a pressure transmitter we
calibrate or rerange the transmitter to the
same range.
• Linearity – insures the calibration is accurate
the full range
 Integral control – how fast
and how aggressive the
controlled variable returns to
the set point position when
process conditions change.
Based on how much change.
(pg. 76, right column) (area under
the curve)
Derivative control, or rate control,
adjusts the controller output
according to the rate at which the
error is changing. Based on how fast
the change occurs. (rate of change)
See page 74.
See page 76-77.
See page 76-79
• Overdamped, underdamped, critically damped.
slightly underdamped desirable. (pg 79 left col.)
• Programmable Logic Controllers – functions and
versatillty. (pg 79 right col.)
Distributed Control Systems – DCS. (pg 81)
• Exchange data and other information between
controllers and computers.
• This allows data to be gathered, the control of
adjustments, or the operation of master-slave
devices.
• Master-slave protocol is used at lowest hierarchy
levels where one device controls several lower
devices.
Distributed Control Systems – DCS. (pg 81-83)
• Are industrial networks that exchange data
between production line and other departments
for control and monitoring.
Distributed Control Systems – DCS. (pg 81-83)
• Enterprise networks share data with non-critical
departments
Distributed Control Systems – DCS. (pg 81-83)
• Field Device Level – controls production
equipment.
Distributed Control Systems – DCS. (pg 81-83)
Human-Machine Interface - HMI (or MMI) (p. 83)
• Allows technicians or maintenance personnel to
make adjustments, change commands or check
status of process conditions.
• Design of such interfaces is base on ergonomics.
• Ergonomics is the science of that deals with the
methods, procedures and environment involved
between humans and machines.
• Ergonomics works to assure that operators
perform their assignments efficiently, with ease,
and with a minimum of error.
• Digital screen, key pads, mouse, touch screen.