CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO
OPERATING SYSTEMS
by
Ugur HALICI
1.1 General Definition

 An OS is a program which acts as an interface

between computer system users and the computer
hardware.
 It provides a user-friendly environment in which a
user may easily develop and execute programs.
 Otherwise, hardware knowledge would be
mandatory for computer programming.
 So, it can be said that an OS hides the complexity
of hardware from uninterested users.
1.1 General Definition

 In general, a computer system has some resources

which may be utilized to solve a problem. They
are 
 Memory
 Processor(s)
 I/O
 File System
 etc.
1.1 General Definition

Mainboard
1.1 General Definition
1.1 General Definition

mainboard
1.1 General Definition

processor
1.1 General Definition

RAM
1.1 General Definition
 The OS manages these resources and allocates
them to specific programs and users.
 With the management of the OS, a programmer is

rid of difficult hardware considerations.

 An OS provides services for

 ProcessorManagement
 Memory Management
 File Management
 Device Management
 Concurrency Control
1.1 General Definition
 Another aspect for the usage
of OS is that; it is used as a Application Programs

predefined library for

System Programs
hardware-software
interaction. Operating System
 This is why, system programs
Machine Language
apply to the installed OS
since they cannot reach
HARDWARE
hardware directly.
1.1 General Definition

 Since we have an already written library, namely

the OS, to add two numbers we simply write the
following line to our program:
c=a+b;
1.1 General Definition
 in a system where there is no OS installed, we
should consider some hardware work as:
(Assuming an MC 6800 computer hardware)

LDAA $80  Loading the number at memory location 80

LDAB $81  Loading the number at memory location 81
ADDB  Adding these two numbers
STAA $55  Storing the sum to memory location 55

 As seen, we considered memory locations and used

our hardware knowledge of the system.
1.1 General Definition
 In an OS installed machine, since we have an
intermediate layer, our programs obtain some
advantage of mobility by not dealing with
hardware.
 For example, the above program segment would
not work for an 8086 machine, where as the
“c = a + b ;”
syntax will be suitable for both.
1.1 General Definition

A more
A simple program sophisticated Hardware
segment with no OS program segment Machine response
hardware with hardware Language
consideration consideration
1.1 General Definition

 With the advantage of easier programming

provided by the OS, the hardware, its machine
language and the OS constitutes a new combination
called as a virtual (extended) machine.
Operating
Machine System
Virtual
Language Machine (Extended)
Machine Language
Hardware Machine
Hardware
1.1 General Definition

 In a more simplistic approach, in fact, OS itself is a

program.
 But it has a priority which application programs
don’t have.
 OS uses the kernel mode of the microprocessor,
whereas other programs use the user mode.
 The difference between two is that; all hardware
instructions are valid in kernel mode, where some
of them cannot be used in the user mode.
1.2 History of Operating Systems

 It all started with computer hardware in about

1940s.

ENIAC 1943
1.2 History of Operating Systems

 ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and

Computer), at the U.S. Army's Aberdeen Proving
Ground in Maryland.
 built in the 1940s,
 weighed 30 tons,
 was eight feet high, three feet deep, and 100 feet long
 contained over 18,000 vacuum tubes that were cooled
by 80 air blowers.
1.2 History of Operating Systems

 Computers were using vacuum tube technology.

ENIAC’s vacuum tubes

1.2 History of Operating Systems

ENIAC’s backside
1.2 History of Operating Systems

Programs were loaded into memory manually using switches, punched

cards, or paper tapes.

ENIAC : coding by cable connections

1.2 History of Operating Systems

punch card
1.2 History of Operating Systems
1.2 History of Operating Systems

Paper tape
1.2 History of Operating Systems
1.2 History of Operating Systems

Babbage’s analytical engine

(designed in 1840’s by Charles Babbage, but cold not be constructed by him.
An earlier and simpler version is constructed in 2002, in London )

http://www.computerhistory.org/babbage/
1.2 History of Operating Systems

 Ada Lovalence (at time of Charles Babbage) wrote

code for analytical engine to compute Bernulli
Numbers
1.2 History of Operating Systems

 As time went on, card readers, printers, and

magnetic tape units were developed as additional
hardware elements.
 Assemblers, loaders and simple utility libraries
were developed as software tools.
 Later, off-line spooling and channel program
methods were developed sequentially.
1.2 History of Operating Systems

Commodore PET,
1977
1.2 History of Operating Systems

 Finally, the idea of multiprogramming came.

 Multiprogramming means sharing of resources
between more than one processes.
 By multiprogramming the CPU time is not wasted,
because, while one process moves on some I/O
work, the OS picks another process to execute till
the current one passes to I/O operation.
1.2 History of Operating Systems

 With the development of interactive computation in

1970s, time-sharing systems emerged.
 In these systems, multiple users have terminals (not
computers) connected to a main computer and
execute her task in the main computer.
1.2 History of Operating Systems

Main computer; having a CPU

executing processes by
utilization of the OS, (e.g. UNIX).

Terminals are connected

to the main computer and
used for input and output.
No processing is made.
They do not have CPUs.
1.2 History of Operating Systems

 Another computer system is the multiprocessor

system having multiple processors sharing memory
and peripheral devices.
 With this configuration, they have greater
computing power and higher reliability.
1.2 History of Operating Systems

 Multiprocessor systems are classified into two as

tightly-coupled and loosely-coupled (distributed).
 In the tightly-coupled one, each processor is
assigned a specific duty but processors work in
close association, possibly sharing the same
memory.
 In the loosely coupled one, each processor has its
own memory and copy of the OS.
1.2 History of Operating Systems

 Use of the networks required OSs appropriate for

them.
 In network systems, each process runs in its own
machine but the OS have access to other machines.
 By this way, file sharing, messaging, etc. became
possible.
 In networks, users are aware of the fact that s/he is
working in a network and when information is
exchanged. The user explicitly handles the transfer
of information.
1.2 History of Operating Systems

Each is a computer having its own

CPU, RAM, etc. An OS supporting
networks is installed on them.
1.2 History of Operating Systems

 Distributed systems are similar to networks.

However in such systems, there is no need to
exchange information explicitly, it is handled by
the OS itself whenever necessary.

 With continuing innovations, new architectures and

compatible OSs are developed. But their details are
not in the scope of this text since the objective here
is to give only a general view about developments
in OS concept.
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