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Data Communications and Computer Networks

Data can be either analog or digital. Analog data are continuous while digital data are discrete. Signals can also be analog or digital, with analog signals taking continuous values and digital signals having a limited set of defined values. Periodic signals repeat over time in a predictable pattern, while aperiodic signals do not repeat. The frequency of a signal is the number of cycles it completes per second.

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37 views

Data Communications and Computer Networks

Data can be either analog or digital. Analog data are continuous while digital data are discrete. Signals can also be analog or digital, with analog signals taking continuous values and digital signals having a limited set of defined values. Periodic signals repeat over time in a predictable pattern, while aperiodic signals do not repeat. The frequency of a signal is the number of cycles it completes per second.

Uploaded by

Imad Shah
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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DATA

COMMUNICATIONS
AND COMPUTER
NETWORKS
Analog and Digital Data
■ Analog Data
– Analog refers to something that is continuous in time
– Continuous– A set of specific points of data and all
possible points between them
■ Example
– An analog clock that has hour, minute, and second hands
gives information in a continuous form; the movement of
the clock are continuous.
Analog and Digital Data
■ Digital Data
– Digital refers to something that is discrete
– Discrete– A set of specific points of data with no points in
between
■ Example
– A digital clock that reports the hours and the minutes will
change suddenly from 8:05 to 8:06
Analog and Digital Data
■ Data can be Analog or Digital
■ Example of ANALOG Data is Human voice
– When somebody speaks, a continuous wave is created in the
air.
– This can be captured by a Microphone and converted to an
Analog Signal
■ An example of DIGITAL data is Data stored in the memory of a
computer in the form of 1s and 0s.
– They can be converted to a digital signal or modulated into
an analog signal for transmission across a medium.
Note

Data can be analog or digital.


Analog data are continuous and take continuous
values.
Digital data have discrete states and take
discrete values.
Analog and Digital Signals
■ Signals can be Analog or Digital
■ Analog Signal
– It is a continuous waveform that changes smoothly over
time
– As the wave moves from value ‘ A’ to value ‘B’, it passes
through and includes an infinite number of values along its
path
Analog and Digital Signals
■ Digital Signal
– A digital signal is discrete. It can have only a limited
number of defined values, often as simple as 1s and 0s
– The transition of a digital signal from value to value is
instantaneous like a light being switched ON and OFF
Note

Signals can be analog or digital.


Analog signals can have an infinite
number of values in a range; digital
signals can have only a limited
number of values.
Periodic and Aperiodic
Signals
Periodic and Aperiodic
Signals
■ Periodic Signal
– A signal is called Periodic if it completes a pattern within a
measurable time frame called a Period and then repeats that
pattern over identical subsequent Periods
– The completion of one full pattern is called a CYCLE
– Period: Time required (in Seconds) to complete one full
cycle, represented by ‘T’
Periodic and Aperiodic
Signals
■ Periodic Signal
Periodic and Aperiodic
Signals
■ Aperiodic Signal
– Aperiodic or non-periodic signal is the one that changes
constantly without exhibiting a pattern or cycle that repeats
over time
Periodic Analog Signals
■ Periodic analog signals can be classified as Simple or
Composite
■ Simple Analog Signal(Sine Wave)
– Cannot be decomposed into simpler signal
■ Composite Analog Signal
– Composed of multiple sine waves
Sine Wave
■ Sine Waves are the most fundamental form of Periodic Analog
Signals
■ The curve oscillates over the course of a cycle smoothly and
consistently
■ Each cycle consists of a single arc above the time axis
followed by a single arc below it
Sine Waves and
its Characteristics
■ Sine Waves can be fully described by three characteristics:
– Amplitude
– Period/Frequency
– Phase
Sine Waves and
its Characteristics
■ Amplitude
■ Amplitude of a signal is the value of the signal at any point on
the wave
■ It is equal to the vertical distance from a given point on the
wave form to the horizontal axis
■ The maximum amplitude of the sine wave is equal to the
highest value it reaches on the vertical axis
■ Amplitude measured in Volts, Amperes or Watts
Sine Waves and
its Characteristics
■ Amplitude
Sine Waves and
its Characteristics
■ Period & Frequency
■ Period: Amount of time ( in seconds) a signal need to
complete one cycle
– Unit of Period: Period is expressed in seconds
■ Frequency: Number of cycles completed in one second
– Unit of Frequency: Frequency is measured in hertz
f=1/T and T=1/f
■ Frequency and period are the inverse of each other
Sine Waves and
its Characteristics
■ Period & Frequency
Note

Frequency is the rate of change with


respect to time. Change in a short span
of time means high frequency. Change
over a long span of time means low
frequency.
Note

If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero.

If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.


Sine Waves and
its Characteristics
■ Phase
■ Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time
zero
■ If we think of the wave as something that can be shifted
backward or forward along the time axis
■ Phase describes the amount of that shift
■ It indicates the status of the first cycle
■ Phase is measured in Degrees or Radians
Sine Waves and
its Characteristics
■ Phase
■ 360 degrees – 2 pi Radians
■ A phase shift of 360 degrees correspond to a shift of a
complete period
■ A phase shift of 180 degree correspond to a shift of half a
period
■ A phase shift of 90 degree correspond to a shift of quarter a
period
Sine Waves and
its Characteristics
■ Phase
Wavelength
■ The wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel in
one period. It is represented by λ and measured in micrometers
(microns) instead of meters.
Wavelength = (propagation speed) X period
Wavelength = (propagation speed) / frequency
■ The wavelength depends on both the frequency and the
propagation speed of the signal in the medium.
Wavelength and Period
Wavelength

Direction of
propagation
Time and Frequency Domain
■ Time Domain plots show changes in signal amplitude w.r.t
Time
■ It is an Amplitude versus Time Plot
■ Phase and Frequency are not explicitly measured on a Time
domain plot
■ To show the relationship between amplitude and Frequency,
we can use what is called a Frequency Domain Plot
Time and Frequency Domain
Time and Frequency Domain
■ The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we
are dealing with more than one sine wave.
■ For example
– Figure on the next slide, shows three sine waves, each with
different amplitude and frequency. All can be represented
by three spikes in the frequency domain.
Time and Frequency Domain
Example
Time and Frequency Domain
Example
■ Figure shows 3 signals with different frequencies and its time
and frequency domain presentations
■ Figure compares the time domain (instantaneous amplitude
w.r.t Time) and the Frequency domain (Max amplitude w.r.t
Frequency)
■ Low Frequency signal in frequency domain corresponds to a
signal with longer period in Time domain & vice versa.
■ A signal changing rapidly in Time domain corresponds to High
frequency in Frequency domain
Composite Signals
■ Second type of analog signals is composite signals
■ A composite signal is made of many simple sine waves
■ In data communication single-frequency sine wave is not
useful, we need to send a composite signal to communicate
data
Note

A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data communications;

we need to send a composite signal, a signal made of many simple

sine waves.
Composite Periodic Signal
Decomposition of a Composite
Periodic Signal
Time and Frequency Domain of a
Non-periodic Signal
Bandwidth
■ The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is its
bandwidth.
■ The bandwidth is normally a difference between two numbers.
■ For example
– If a composite signal contains frequencies between 1000
and 5000, its bandwidth is 5000 − 1000, or 4000.
Bandwidth of Periodic and Nonperiodic
Composite Signals
Digital Signals
■ In addition to being represented by an analog signal,
information can also be represented by a digital signal.
■ For example
– A 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero
voltage.
■ A digital signal can have more than two levels. In this case, we
can send more than 1 bit for each level.
Digital Signals
■ two signals, one with two levels and the other with four.
Bit Rate
■ Most digital signals are nonperiodic, and thus period and
frequency are not appropriate characteristics.
■ Another term—bit rate (instead of frequency)—is used to
describe digital signals.
■ The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in bits
per second (bps).
Bit Interval and Bit Rate
■ Bit Interval (seconds)
– Time required to send one single bit
■ Bit Rate (bps)
– Number of bits sent per second

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