INTRODUCTION:

Data Communication &

Networking

Mahan Institute of Technologies,

New Delhi
@ 2006 mit

Organization

• Communication
• Signal Representation
• Analog Vs. Digital
• Digital Transmission
• Channel Capacity
• Data Communication System
• Networking Overview
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Simple Communication Model

Source Destination

Transmission

media

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Terminology

• Transmitter
• Receiver
• Medium
– Guided medium
• e.g. twisted pair, optical fiber
– Unguided medium
• e.g. air, water, vacuum

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Example

client program server

communications
channel

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Communication System

Noise

Carrier

Source Modulator Demodulator Sink/

Destination

Transmission
media
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Signal Types

• Time domain concepts

– Continuous signal
• Various in a smooth way over time
– Discrete signal
• Maintains a constant level then changes to another constant
level
– Periodic signal
• Pattern repeated over time
– Aperiodic signal
• Pattern not repeated over time

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Frequency, Spectrum and

Bandwidth
Signal bandwidth
(fupper-flower)
Amplitude
(or power)

Frequency

flower fupper

Attenuation (dB)

Signal bandwidth

3 dB
Frequency

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Bandwidth
Attenuation (dB)

Signal bandwidth

3 dB

Frequency

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Continuous & Discrete Signals

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Periodic Signals

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Sine Wave

• Peak Amplitude (A)

– maximum strength of signal
– volts
• Frequency (f)
– Rate of change of signal
– Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
– Period = time for one repetition (T)
– T = 1/f
• Phase ()
– Relative position in time

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Varying Sine Waves

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Amplitude Amplitude

V max

T (1/f) V max
0

-V max
f (1/T)

Time domain Frequency domain

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Wavelength

• Distance occupied by one cycle

• Distance between two points of corresponding
phase in two consecutive cycles

• Assuming signal velocity v
  = vT
 f = v
– c = 3*108 ms-1 (speed of light in free space)

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Frequency Domain Concepts

• Signal usually made up of many

frequencies
• Components are sine waves
• Can be shown (Fourier analysis) that any
signal is made up of component sine waves
• Can plot frequency domain functions

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Addition of Frequency Components

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Frequency Domain

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Spectrum & Bandwidth

• Spectrum
– range of frequencies contained in signal
• Absolute bandwidth
– width of spectrum
• Effective bandwidth
– Often just bandwidth
– Narrow band of frequencies containing most of the energy
• DC Component
– Component of zero frequency

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Signal with DC Component

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Data Rate and Bandwidth

• Any transmission system has a limited band

of frequencies
• This limits the data rate that can be carried

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Analog and Digital Data

Transmission
• Data
– Entities that convey meaning
• Signals
– Electric or electromagnetic representations of
data
• Transmission
– Communication of data by propagation and
processing of signals

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Data

• Analog
– Continuous values within some interval
– e.g. sound, video
• Digital
– Discrete values
– e.g. text, integers

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Acoustic Spectrum (Analog)

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Signals

• Means by which data are propagated

• Analog
– Continuously variable
– Various media
• wire, fiber optic, space
– Speech bandwidth 100Hz to 7kHz
– Telephone bandwidth 300Hz to 3400Hz
– Video bandwidth 4MHz
• Digital
– Use two DC components

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Data and Signals

• Usually use digital signals for digital data

and analog signals for analog data
• Can use analog signal to carry digital data
– Modem
• Can use digital signal to carry analog data
– Compact Disc audio

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Analog Signals Carrying Analog

and Digital Data

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Digital Signals Carrying Analog

and Digital Data

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Analog Transmission

• Analog signal transmitted without regard to

content
• May be analog or digital data
• Attenuated over distance
• Use amplifiers to boost signal
• Also amplifies noise

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Digital Transmission

• Concerned with content

• Integrity endangered by noise, attenuation etc.
• Repeaters used
• Repeater receives signal
• Extracts bit pattern
• Retransmits
• Attenuation is overcome
• Noise is not amplified

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Advantages of Digital Transmission

• Digital technology
– Low cost LSI/VLSI technology
• Data integrity
– Longer distances over lower quality lines
• Capacity utilization
– High bandwidth links economical
– High degree of multiplexing easier with digital techniques
• Security & Privacy
– Encryption
• Integration
– Can treat analog and digital data similarly

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‘1’ ‘0’

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Bit stream
to be
transmitted 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1

Manchester
encoding

Extracted
receiver
clock

Receiver
bit stream
0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1

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digital
threshold

digital signal noise digital signal

+ noise

+
- digital
threshold

comparator

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+V
0V
-V

0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1

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No timing information

+V
0V
-V

0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1

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DAC output
Analogue

Signal

Slope overload

PCM 1111111000100011000010101

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signal

Ts

samples

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1111
1110
1101
1100
1011
1010
1001
1000
0111
0110
0101
0100
0011
0010
0001
0000

Encoded 1110 1100 0001 1110 1100 0001 1110 1100

data 1101 0000 0001 1101 0000 0001 1101

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Digital code Digital code

FS - Full scale voltage

111 111
110 110
101 101
100 100
011
011
010
010
001 Voltage 001
000
000
FS/4 FS/2 3FS/4 FS

Unipolar coding Bipolar coding

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Quantization noise

Soft
speech Quantization noise noticeable

Quantization noise

Loud Quantization noise less

speech noticeable because signal
strength swamps quantization
noise

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Amplitude Amplitude

V max

V max
T (1/f)
0

-V max
f (1/T)
Time domain Frequency domain

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V
0.9

1
0
T
0.3
0.2
-0.9
1/T 3/T 5/T f

Time domain Frequency domain

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Transmission Impairments

• Signal received may differ from signal

transmitted
• Analog - degradation of signal quality
• Digital - bit errors
• Caused by
– Attenuation and attenuation distortion
– Delay distortion
– Noise

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Attenuation

• Signal strength falls off with distance

• Depends on medium
• Received signal strength:
– must be enough to be detected
– must be sufficiently higher than noise to be
received without error
• Attenuation is an increasing function of
frequency

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Delay Distortion

• Only in guided media

• Propagation velocity varies with frequency

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Noise (1)

• Additional signals inserted between transmitter

and receiver
• Thermal
– Due to thermal agitation of electrons
– Uniformly distributed
– White noise
• Intermodulation
– Signals that are the sum and difference of original
frequencies sharing a medium

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Noise (2)

• Crosstalk
– A signal from one line is picked up by another
• Impulse
– Irregular pulses or spikes
– e.g. External electromagnetic interference
– Short duration
– High amplitude

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Channel Capacity

• Data rate
– In bits per second
– Rate at which data can be communicated
• Bandwidth
– In cycles per second of Hertz
– Constrained by transmitter and medium

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Data Communication Model

DTE DCE DCE DTE

Computer Modem Modem Computer

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Data Communications Model

• Source
– generates data to be transmitted
• Transmitter
– Converts data into transmittable signals
• Transmission System
– Carries data
• Receiver
– Converts received signal into data
• Destination
– Takes incoming data

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Model vs. Example

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Key Communications Tasks

• Transmission System Utilization
• Interfacing
• Signal Generation
• Synchronization
• Exchange Management
• Error detection and correction
• Addressing and routing
• Recovery
• Message formatting
• Security
• Network Management

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Simplified Data Communications

Model

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DTE-DCE Interface

Transmit (T)

Control (C)

Receive (R) Data Circuit

Data Termination Termination
Equipment (DTE) Indication (I) Equipment (DCE)

Signal timing

GND

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Terminology

• Simplex
– One direction
• e.g. Television
• Half duplex
– Either direction, but only one way at a time
• e.g. police radio
• Full duplex
– Both directions at the same time
• e.g. telephone

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Modes of Communication

Simplex
communications

Half-duplex (HDX)
or
communications

Full-duplex (FDX)
communications

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Communication Ports

9-pin D-type 9-pin or 25-pin D-type

male connector (COM1:) male connector (COM2:)
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transmitter receiver
buffer buffer
transmitted
characters

Receiver
reads from
buffer

Receiver has
failed to read the
buffer before another
character has been
received

Transmitter Receiver

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Data
transmission
Transmitter

Receiver
X-OFF
X-ON

Data
transmission

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RTS Are you ready

to receive ?
Transmitting CTS
node
RTS
No
CTS
RTS
Yes
CTS Receiving
TD node

Send
character RD

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First bit sent

01100010 01001111 10100111 00100011

‘F’ ‘r’ ‘e’ ‘d’

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+12V

-12V

0 1 0 0 1 1 0
Inactive condition

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1 1 0 1 0

ASK

PSK

FSK

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Tx Character Tx Character Tx Character

Inactive condition

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0 b0 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 P S1 S2 1

start ASCII parity stop

bit character bit bit(s)

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

‘A’ (100 0001)

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B0
B1

B2

B3
Parity
Even/Odd Parity

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+12 V
Start Stop
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 bit
-12 V bit

120 S
ASCII ‘V’ 101 0110
Baud rate: 9600 baud

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+12V

-12V

0 1 0 0 1 1 0
Inactive condition

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Pin Signal
2 TxData
13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 3 RxData
4 RTS
5 CTS
25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 6 DSR
7 GND
20 DTR

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Transmission Media

• Wired
– Twisted pair, Coaxial cable, FO
• Wireless
– Short range
• Infrared
– Long Range
• Microwave
• Satellite

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Electromagnetic spectrum
(its uses for communication)

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Transmission Media
Insulating outer conductor
Inner Metal sheath
conductor

Coaxial
cable

Outer cladding
Inner cladding
(PVC)
Inner fibre (glass)
Fibre
(glass)
optic
cable

Twisted-pair
cable

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Terminology

• Direct link
– No intermediate devices
• Point-to-point
– Direct link
– Only 2 devices share link
• Multi-point
– More than two devices share the link

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Telephone Network

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Cable TV Network

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Suggested Reading

• William Stallings
Data and Computer Communications
chapter 3
• B. Forouzan
Data Communication & Networks
chapter 2

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