phonetic and graphic expressive means

and stylistic devices

S t y l i s t i c e l e m e n t s are the use of any of a variety of techniques to give an auxiliary
meaning, idea, or feeling to the literal or written’

Stylistic devices make your speeches, essays etc. more interesting and lively and help you
to get and keep your reader’s / listener’s attention.

The stylistic approach to the utterance is not confined to its structure and sense. There is
another thing to be taken into account which, in a certain type of communication plays an
important role. This is the way a word, a phrase or a sentence sounds. The sound of most
words taken separately will have little or no aesthetic value. A word may acquire a desired
phonetic effect only in combination with other words. The way a separate word sounds
may produce a certain euphonic effect, but this is a matter of individual perception and
feeling and therefore subjective. However there exist psychological works on the theory of
sound symbolism. They checked the associations, which the tested people have with the
definite sounds. Statistics shows that their answers coincide very often.

Verier St Woolman, one of the founders of the theory of sound symbolism claimed that a
certain sound when pronounced clearly and strong has special meaning and feeling. For
example the sound [d], when repeated often may produce an effect of something evil,
negative and wicked.
 The sound of a word, or more exactly the way words sound in combination, often
contributes something to the general effect of the message, particularly when the sound
effect has been deliberately worked out. This can easily be recognized when analyzing
alliterative word combinations or the rhymes in certain stanzas or from more elaborate
analysis of sound arrangement.

The aesthetiс effect of the text is composed not only with the help of sounds and prosody,
but with the help of sounds and prosody together with the meaning. The sound side of the
belles-letters work makes a whole with rhythm and meaning and can’t influence the reader
separately.

To influence aesthetically the sound part of the text should somehow be highlightened. An
author can increase an emotional and aesthetic effect of his work through choosing the
words, their arrangement and repetitions. Let’s see what phonetic SDs can secure this
function.
Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech sounds which aims at imitating sounds

produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc. – splash, bubble, rustle, whistle) by things
(machines or tools, etc. - buzz) by people (singing, laughter, yawning, roar, giggle) and
animals (moo, bleat, croak - frog). Therefore the relation between onomatopoeia and the
phenomenon it is supposed to represent is one of metonymy: that is it can be used in
transferred meaning – tintinnabulation-the sound of bells

There are two varieties of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect.

Direct onomatopoeia is contained in words that imitate natural sounds, as thud,

bowwow, ding-dong, buzz, bang, ‘cuckoo. These words have different degrees of
‘imitative quality. Some of them immediately bring to mind whatever it is that produces
the sound. Others require some imagination to decipher it.

Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to make the

sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. It is sometimes called "echo writing".
Indirect onomatopoeia demands some mention of what makes the sound, as rustling of
curtains in the following line. And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple
curtain.
Alliteration and assonance

Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparting a melodic effect to the
utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular
consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words: " The
possessive instinct never stands still (J. Galsworthy) or, "Deep into the darkness peering, long I
stood there wondering, fearing, doubting, dreaming dreams no mortals ever dared to dream
before" (E. A. Poe).

Alliteration is also used to name the repetition of first letters: Apt Alliteration’s artful aid.
(Charles Churchill).

Alliteration has a long tradition in English poetry as Germanic and Anglo-Saxon poems were
organized with its help. (Beowulf)

Charles Churchill J. Galsworthy E. A. Poe

A s s o n a n c e is the repetition of similar stressed vowels within the line or stanza.

“… Tell this soul, with sorrow laden, if within the distant Aiden,

I shall clasp a sainted maiden, whom the angels name Lenore… (E. A. Poe)”

Alliteration, like most phonetic expressive

means, does not bear any lexical or other
meaning. However it supplies the utterance with
a certain nuance of the meaning [d]. That’s why
alliteration is regarded as a musical
accompaniment of the author’s idea, supporting it
with some vague emotional atmosphere which
each reader interprets for himself. Alliteration
heightens the general aesthetic effect of the
utterance when it has connection with sense.

Now it’s used only as a subsidiary device. Its role

is an expressive one – alliterated words indicate
the most important concepts. It’s often used in
emotive prose, newspaper headlines, titles,
proverbs and sayings: Sense and Sensibility;
Pride and Prejudice; safe and sound; part and
parcel etc.
Rhyme

Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combination of words.

Rhyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each other. In verse they are
usually placed at the end of the corresponding lines.

Identity and similarity of sound combinations may be relative. Thus, the first criterion is the
identity of sound. Form this point of view we distinguish between full rhymes and
incomplete rhymes. The full rhyme presupposes identity of the vowel sound and the
following consonant sounds in a stressed syllable (heart – part, flood-blood).

Incomplete rhymes are divided into two main groups: vowel rhymes and consonant rhymes.

• In vowel rhymes the vowels of the syllables in corresponding words are identical, but the
consonants may be different as in (advice-compromise).

• In consonant rhymes, on the contrary, consonants are identical and disparity in vowels, as
in (wind-land, grey-grow).
The second criterion: morphological characteristics.
Compound (broken) rhymes - when one word rhymes with a combination of words; or two or
even three words rhyme with a corresponding two or three words, as in "better – forget her".
The peculiarity of rhymes of this type is that the combination of words is made to sound like
one word - this device will inevitably give a colloquial and sometimes a humorous touch to the
utterance.

Compound rhyme may be set against what is called eye - rhyme, where the letters and not the
sounds are identical, as in love - prove, flood - brood, have - grave. It follows that compound
rhyme is perceived in reading aloud, eye - rhyme can only be perceived in the written verse.

III the way the rhymes are arranged within the stanza: couplets – when the last words of 2
successive lines are rhymed – aa; cross rhymes – перекрёстные - abab; framing or ring rhymes
– опоясывающие - abba.

IV according to their position: e.g. internal rhyme – the rhyming words are placed not at the
ends of the lines but within the line:
The rhyme has 2 functions, which
“I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers.” (Shelley) are realized simultaneously:
disserving (it breaks the line into 2
distinct parts, making the reader to
pause) and consolidating
(consolidates the ideas expressed in
2 parts).
R h y t h m is the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables, more or less regular. As a
SD rhythm is a combination of the ideal metrical scheme and its variations governed by the
standard.

It exists in all spheres of human activity and assumes multifarious forms. It stirs up emotions
whatever its nature or origin, whether it is musical, mechanical or symmetrical as in
architecture.

Rhythm has a great importance not only for music and poetry, but also for prose. In prose
rhythm is closely connected with the metre, i.e. different metrical patterns. The rhythm of
prose is based on the succession of images, themes and other big elements of the text;
repetition, parallel constructions, similar syntactical patterns.

Rhythm intensifies the emotions. It contributes to the general sense, helps to get the flow of
thoughts and humour of the author. In poetry it conveys the mood, emotions and feelings,
sharpens the thought of the author and his characters. Rhythm adds specific importance to
some ideas and feelings, it helps to create reality in text. It has expressive, symbolic and
graphic functions.
The beginning of Dicken’s “A Tale of Two Cities” may serve as an illustration of prose
rhythm:

It was the best of times,

It was the worst of times,
It was the age of wisdom,
It was the age of foolishness,
It was the epoch of belief,
It was the epoch of incredulity,
It was the season of Light,
It was the season of Darkness,
It was the spring of hope,
It was the winter of despair,
We had everything before us,
We had nothing before us,
We were all going direct to Heaven,
We were all going direct the other way....
Graphical EMs

GEM are aimed at conveying in the written form those

emotions which in oral speech are expressed by
intonation and stress. Here belong:
 emphatic use of punctuation,
 deliberate change of the spelling of a word,
 various types of print.

“A detective! I never ‘eard of such a thing! What d’yer come ‘ere for if yer want to be a
detective. ‘Ere, yer not big enough, ‘cos yer’d ‘ave to be a pleeceman first before they’d let
yer be a detective, and they’d never ‘ave yer as a pleeceman. ” (J.D. Priestley,“ Angel
Pavement”)

All types of punctuation can be used to reflect the emphatic intonation of the speaker. Such
‘emphatic’ punctuation is used in many syntactical SDs: aposiopesis (break-in-the-narrative)
[You’ll just come home, or I’ll …], rhetorical questions, suspense etc.

The changed type (italics, bold type) or spelling multiplication (laaarge) are used to indicate
the additional stress on the emphasis word or part of the word.

There is no direct connection between the graphical SDs and the intonation they reflect, for
their choice is too inadequate for the variety and quality of emotions recurrent in intonation.
Emphatic use of punctuation

҉ All types of punctuation are used to express emphatic intonation of the speaker.

҉ Emphatic punctuation is used in many syntactical stylistic devices: aposiopesis,

rhetorical questions, suspense, and may be not connected with any stylistic
devices.

҉ Marks of exclamation (!) and interrogation (?) are of greater importance than
any other marks. Their abundant use in the text is a sign of the text being
emotional and expressive.

҉ Emotional pauses are often reflected by a dash (–):

Please – not that.

҉ Suspension marks (dots …) reflect various emotional states of a character:

disappointment, hesitation, embarrassment.

҉ The absence of punctuation marks may also be meaningful. In modernistic

literature (Joyce) - a stream of consciousness.
Va r i o u s t y p e s o f p r i n t T y p e s o f p r i n t :

⃝ Bold type

⃝ Italics

⃝ CAPITALIZATION / Capitalization

⃝ Hy-phe-na-tion

⃝Spacedletters

⃝ M-m-multiplication

They are used to indicate the additional stress of the emphasized word or part of the
word.
Change of the spelling of a word

Graphon is graphical fixation of phonetic peculiarities of pronunciation resulting in the

violation of the accepted spelling.

Graphon is a characteristic of prose only and is used to indicate blurred, incoherent or

careless pronunciation (temporary factors: tender age, intoxication, ignorance of the
discussed topic or permanent factors: social status, educational background, territorial status
and distinct articulation: whispering, stammering).

∆ [wevə] - instead of [weðə]).

∆ The tender age of the speaker and ignorance of the topic: “My daddy’s coming tomorrow
on a nairplane”.

Permanent graphon is widely used by some modern English writers and by Negro and
military novel writers in America:
∆ I gotta lotta things to buy. Whattaya doing?
Graphical expressive
means

Graphical imagery is another means

of arresting the reader’s attention
and figure poems are of special
interest.
Their outward appearance
is to some extent in keeping with
their theme and contents.
Thus, for ex.: Mouse’s talk (L.Carroll)
is based upon the convergence of
two stylistic devices: 1) the play of
words (pun) – tail and tale, and 2)
figure poetry: the tale has a form of
a tail.