Nuclear Reactions,

Transmutations,
Fission and Fusion
 Natural transmutation (radioactivity)
Till now we have discussed only transmutations of one
nuclei to another by emmiting radioactive particle that
occur only naturally.

Induced (artificial) transmutation

This change of one element to another through the

bombardment of a nucleus is known as artificial
transmutation.
Induced transmutation doesn’t mean it can not happen naturally
– it means bombarment only
example: production of nitrogen from carbon in atmosphere or
artificially induced in the lab

14
7 N  01n  146 C  11 p
● Alpha particle, neutrons, protons, and deuterons …. can
be used to produce artificial nuclear reactions.

● The key to understanding these reactions and making

predictions about the products of such reactions is being
able to balance nuclear equations.

● For the nuclear equation : A → C + D or A + B → C + D

▪ nucleon and proton numbers must balance
on each side of the equation.
▪ conservation of total energy (energy + mass)
must be satisfied

Energy released in nuclear reaction or decay is found the same

way as binding energy: first find mass difference
Δm = LHS – RHS in u
and then E = Δm x 931.5 (MeV)
Transmutations Examples
 Energy released in a decay: A → C + D
spontaneous decay: M > m1 + m2 → binding energy of the decaying
nucleus < binding energies of the product nuclei. The daughter is
more stable. This is why radioactive decay happens with heavy
elements lying to the right of maximum in the binding energy curve.
Energy released is in the form of kinetic energy of the products.

226 222
88 Ra  86 Rn + 24 α M > m1 + m2 , but

total energy on the left = total energy on the right

Mc 2 = m1c 2 + m2c 2 + KE1 + KE 2

 decay
Thorium – 228 decays by  – emission:
228
90Th  224
88 Ra  4
2
Mass of thorium-228 nucleus = 227.97929 u
Mass of radium-224 nucleus + -particle = 223.97189 u + 4.00151 u
= 227.97340 u

 Mass difference = 227.97929 u – 227.97340 u = 0.00589 u = 5.49 MeV

What happens to this binding energy? It appears mostly as kinetic

energy of  – particle. The radium nucleus also recoils slightly
(and so momentum is conserved).
 decay
Aluminum – 29 decays by  – emission:
29
13 Al  29
Si +
14
0
1 +

Mass of aluminum-29 nucleus = 28.97330 u

Mass of silicon-29 nucleus + -particle + antineutrino =
= 28.96880 u + 0.000549 u + 0 = 28.969349 u

 Mass difference = 28.97330 u – 28.969349 u = 0.003951 u = 3.68

MeV

Again this becomes the kinetic energy of the decay products.

 Energy released in a nuclear reaction/artificial transmutation

Nuclear reactions A + B → C + D can either

1. release energy
if Δm = (mA + mB) – (mC + mD) > 0
The total amount of energy released will be E = Δmc2 in the form of
kinetic energy of products. If there was initial kinetic energy, that will
be added up to released energy.

2. or requires energy input

Nitrogen-14 will decay only if energy is supplied to it –
collision with fast moving α particle:
14
7 N  24  178 O  11 p
18.0057 u < 18.0070 u Δm = (mA + mB) – (mC + mD) < 0
Famous 1. Rutherford’s induced
transmutation: bombarding nitrogen gas
α particle must have enough kinetic with
energy to make
alpha up for
particles fromimbalance in
bismuth‑214.
masses, and to provide for kinetic energy of products. This energy is
suplied by a particle accelerator used to accelerate the helium nucleus.
 Fission

● Fission means splitting up a

large nucleus (A > 200) into
two smaller nuclei.

● the total BE would increase

which means that the
daughters are more stable
than parent.

● The excess energy is

released by the reaction.
 ● Spontaneous fission is very rare. Uranium is the largest
nucleus found on Earth. Its isotopes will sometimes fission
naturally. But half-life for U-235 is 7.04x108 years
● Bombarding the nucleus with neutrons can trigger a fission
reaction.
● For example

The strong forces that

hold the nucleus together only
act over a very short distance.
When a uranium nucleus
absorbs a neutron it
knocks the nucleus out of shape. If the nucleus deforms enough, the
electrostatic repulsion between the protons in each half becomes greater than
the strong force. It then splits in two.

The nuclei splits randomly.

In the diagram, the fission fragments are shown as isotopes of Ba and Kr.
This is just one of the many possible combinations.
Fission of a uranium nucleus gives out about 200 MeV of energy.
 Chain Reactions

● When the uranium nucleus splits, a number of neutrons

are also ejected.
● If each ejected neutron causes another uranium nucleus
to undergo fission, we get a chain reaction
● The number of fissions increases rapidly and a huge
amount of energy is released.

● Uncontrolled chain reactions are used in nuclear bombs

● The energy they unleash is devastating.
● Nuclear power stations use the heat released in carefully
controlled fission reactions to generate electricity.
● They use control rods to absorb some of the neutrons.
 Fusion
● Fusion means joining up two
small nuclei to form a
bigger nucleus.

● When two small nuclei the

product of fusion would have
more BE per nucleon.

● The increases in binding

energy per nucleon are
much larger for fusion than
for fission reactions,
because the graph
increases more steeply for
light nuclei.

● So fusion gives out more energy per nucleon

involved in the reaction than fission.
 ● The stars are powered by fusion reactions.
● Each second, in our Sun, more than 560 million tonnes of
hydrogen fuse together to make helium.
● One series of reactions for this is shown here:

Each small nucleus has a positive charge so they will repel each
other. To make the nuclei come close enough for the strong force to
pull them together, they must be thrown together with very igh velocity.
For this to take place, the matter must either be heated to
temperatures as high as the core of the sun (about 13 million Kelvin)
or the particles must be thrown together in a particle accelerator)
● The energy released is radiated by the Sun at a rate of 3.90 x
1020 MW.
● This is the power output of a million million million large power
stations!
● Not surprisingly scientists are keen to develop fusion as a
source of power (fusion reactor).
● One possible reaction is the fusion of deuterium and tritium.
● These are isotopes of hydrogen
● Fusion has a number of advantages over fission:
● greater power output per kilogram,
● the raw materials are cheap and readily available,
● no radioactive elements are produced directly,
● irradiation by the neutrons leads to radioactivity in the reactor
materials but these have relatively short half lives and only
need to be stored safely for a short time.

● So why don't we use fusion in nuclear power stations?

● The JET (Joint European Torus) project was set up to carry out
research into fusion power.
● It has yet to generate a self‑sustaining fusion reaction.
● The main problem is getting two nuclei close enough for long
enough for them to fuse.
 ● Each small nucleus has a positive charge so they will repel each
other. To make the nuclei come close enough for the strong force to
pull them together, they must be thrown together with very igh velocity.
For this to take place, the matter must either be heated to
temperatures as high as the core of the sun (about 13 million Kelvin)
or the particles must be thrown together in a particle accelerator)

● At this temperature all matter exists as an ionised gas or plasma.

● Problem: containment. What can you use to hold something this hot?
● JET (and Princeton) uses magnetic fields in a doughnutshaped
chamber called a torus to keep the plasma away from the container
walls.
● Unfortunately generating high temperatures and strong magnetic
fields uses up more energy than the fusion reaction produces!
● The same problem is with accelerators, the path taken by Japan.
● We are still some years off a fusion power station.
 Applying the binding energy curve – checking stability

For example consider the 238

92 U + 01n  90
38 Sr + 146
54 U + 3 01n
fission reaction
Question: has the system
become more stable?
total binding energy of
U-238 = 7.6×238 = 1800 MeV
total binding energy of
Sr-90 = 8.7×90 = 780 MeV
total binding energy of
Xe-146 = 8.2×146 = 1200 MeV

The sum of the total binding energies of the fission

nuclei is greater than the binding energy of the
uranium-238 nucleus. Effectively the system has become
more stable by losing energy. (KEneutron provided that energy)
Similarly for the fusion reaction 2
1 H + 31H  24 He + 01n

the total binding energy of the helium nucleus is greater

than the sum of binding energies of the tritium and
deuterium nuclei. So, again as for fission, the system has
effectively become more stable by losing energy.

total binding energy of H-2 = 1×2 = 2 MeV

total binding energy of H-3 = 2.8×3 = 8.4 MeV
total binding energy of He-4 = 4×7 = 28 MeV
 Thestrong force does not actually occur directly between protons and
neutrons in the nucleus, but in the smaller quarks making them up.
The force is mediated by fundamental particles called gluons, named
for the way they glue quarks together. Each proton or neutron is
composed of three quarks. The strong nuclear force between
nucleons is the result of the force holding together their constituent
quarks.

proton
neutron

nucleus

electron