BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE

DESIGN THESIS – BATCH 2019-20

ECO – RESORT

SHEELA AJAY KUMAR

16091AA025

Under the Guidance of

Er. G. Vinay Kumar
Assistant Professor

STRUCTURAL FEASIBILITY REPORT

Vaishnavi School of Architecture and Planning

Survey No 48/A, Kavuri Hills, Hyderabad 500081
 Vaishnavi School of Architecture and Planning
Survey no 240/1, Bandar road, Vijayawada, 520 007.

Affiliated to

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU ARCHITECTURE

AND FINE ARTS UNIVERSITY

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Design Thesis entitled ECO – RESORT carried out by Mr.
SHEELA AJAY KUMAR, bearing the Hall ticket No. 16091AA025, currently in the
Fourth year B.Arch, during the academic year 2019, in partial fulfilment for the
award of the Degree of BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE from Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University is a record of bonafide work to be the best of our
knowledge and may be placed before the examination board for their consideration.

Thesis Guide Thesis Coordinator

External examiner PRINCIPAL

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would never have been able to finish my thesis without the guidance of my faculty
members, help from friends, and support from my family.

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my advisor, Ms. Ar. Sindhuja Garimella,
for her excellent guidance, caring, patience, and providing me with an excellent
atmosphere for doing research.

I would like to thank Ast. Prof. Er. G. Vinay Kumar for guiding my structural part of my
project.

I would also like to thank my parents and friends. They have always supported me and
encouraged me with their best wishes.

However, it would not have been possible without the kind support and help of many
individuals. I am highly indebted to all of them.
 ABSTRACT

The report discussed the various design issues and research throughout the year. The
proposed project is located in lambasinghi. The project has been selected keeping in the
view the need for an resort to attract more tourist and visitors.

Before proceeding with actual design and plan, an insight is given to the climatic
conditions and tourism in lambasinghi to give easier and connecting information to the
project.

It nearly covers all the major issues and requirements of eco resort. And also the project
covers all the requirements of many other activity and entertainment spaces to reduce stress
and promote health and ecological quality.

The proposed eco resort will be a pleasant addition to develop the tourism and beauty of
lambasinghi, and also fulfils the recreational and entertainment needs of people of
sorroundings.
 CONTENTS

NOTATIONS…………………………………………………………………. 01

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION
1.1 Aim………………………………………………………… 02
1.2 Objective…………………………………………………… 02
1.3 Project Description……..………………………………….. 03

CHAPTER 2 : DESIGN OF STRUCTURES

2.1 Functional Design..………………………………………… 04
2.2 Structural Design...………………………………………… 04

CHAPTER 3 : TYPES OF STRUCTURES

3.1 Selection Criteria...………………………………………… 06
3.2 Statement of Project...……………………………………… 06

CHAPTER 4 : LITERATURE STUDY

4.1 R.C.C. Buildings....………………………………………… 08
4.2 Philosophies for Design of R.C.C..………………………… 10
4.3 Limit State Method & Working Stress Method……………. 13
4.4 Rules for Calculating Rotation Contributions……………... 14
4.5 Types of Loads……………………………………………... 15
4.6 Analysis…………………………………………………….. 17

CHAPTER 5 : STAGES IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN

5.1 Instructural Planning.....…….……………………………… 18
5.2 Assumptions………...……………………………………… 21

CHAPTER 6 : METHODOLOGIES
6.1 STAAD Pro............………………………………………… 22
6.2 Autocad…………………………..………………………… 23
6.3 Design Philosophies………………………….……………. 23
6.4 Method of Analysis………………………………………... 25

CHAPTER 7 : PLAN & ELEVATION

7.1 Plan.....…………………..….……………………………… 26
7.2 Elevation Diagram on STAAD Pro...……………………… 27
CHAPTER 8 : COLUMNS
8.1 Column Positioning………………………………………... 28
8.2 Orientation…………………………………………………. 28
8.3 Introduction..……………………………………………….. 29
8.4 Design of Column………………………………………….. 29

CHAPTER 9 : BEAMS
9.1 Positioning of Beams…..…………………………………... 34
9.2 Introduction…...……………………………………………. 35
9.3 Types of Beams..….……………………………………….. 35
9.4 Design of Beam...………………………………………….. 36
9.5 Design Guidelines…………………………………………. 36

CHAPTER 10 : SLAB
10.1 Classification of Concrete Slabs…...……………………... 42
10.2 Classification of Two-Way Slabs…………………………. 42
10.3 Design of Two-Way Slab.……..………………………….. 43

CHAPTER 11 : FOOTINGS………………………………………………... 50

CHAPTER 12 : SUMMARY………………………………………………... 57

CHAPTER 13 : CONCLUSION……………………………………………. 58

CHAPTER 14 : BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………. 59
 NOTATIONS :

Asv – Cross sectional area of the stirrups

Ast – Area of steel in tension

Pt – Percentage of steel in tension

B – Breadth of the beam

D – Overall depth

d – Effective depth of the beam

d′ - Effective cover

Fck – Characteristics strength of concrete

Fy - Characteristic strength of steel

X - Moment coefficient in shorter span direction

Y - Moment coefficient in longer span direction

Ɩ - Effective length

Ɩx – Effective shorter span

Ɩy - Effective long span

K – Stiffness factor

Mυ – Factored moment

Wυ – Factored load

Q – Net upward pressure intensity

VUS – Difference of shear force in allowable & permissible stress

T ͂c – allowable shear stress

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 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Handloom fabrics and handloom weavers form an integral part of the rich culture,
heritage and tradition of India. Apart from providing one of the basic needs of man this
industry provides direct and indirect employment to lakhs of people in both rural and
urban areas.
In the recent past however this traditional art is diminishing. The main goal of weaver’s
centre is to uplift the living and working conditions of the weavers. They also increase
handloom exports and improve labour productivity, market access& market promotion.
Telangana is known world-wide for its intricate, artistic and glorious weaves. The
districts of Pochampally, Narayanpet, Gadwal, Mahbubnagar and Sircilla are common
weaving destinations here. The abundance of raw materials, talented and skilled labour
pool in the State provides immense potential to develop a weaver’s centre here.
The proposed centre would be home to all units involved in handloom weaving of cotton
and also provide housing facilities to the weavers. It would house retail spaces to ensure
direct interaction between the weavers and the customers and bring back the glory of
good old days by creating employment to local people.

1.1 AIM :

The aim is to design a weaver’s community with the improved spatial quality of living
and working spaces of the weavers of Telangana with respect to changing trends and
market demands.

1.2 OBJECTIVES :

• To understand the existing local architecture of the existing area.

• To assess the prototypes of existing houses and workspace requirements of the
weavers.
• To assess the infrastructure with utmost importance required for the user.
• To plan spaces with respect to the lifestyles and activities of the weavers.
• Study the work culture, lifestyle and its impact on architecture.
• To learn about the origin, change and development of weavers.

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 1.3 PROJECT DESCRIPTION :

A significant portion of State workforce is dependent on handloom industry for

employment. But due to lack of proper living and working conditions many weavers are
driving out of this occupation.

Also the inability of the weavers to directly sell their goods to the consumer due to the
presence of many middlemen is affecting their economic development.

The main aim of weaver’s centre is to uplift the living & working conditions of the
weavers and to provide social security. Such centres will also increase handloom exports
and improve labour productivity, market access & market promotion.

Therefore if proper infrastructure and other amenities are provided the age old weaving
tradition of the country can be revived.

The infrastructure issues would be addressed by setting up additional Integrated Textile

Parks and Mega Clusters for handlooms.

Gadwal handloom cluster is located 50 Km away from the district headquarters of

Mahaboobnagar. The cluster covers 500 looms with 1,000 weavers working in them. The
main products of the cluster are sarees. The Gadwal Zari Sarees are the main products of
this cluster.

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 CHAPTER 2 DESIGN OF STRUCTURES

2.1 FUNCTIONAL DESIGN :

• The structure to be constructed should primarily serve the basic purpose for which it is
to be used and must have a pleasing look.
• The building should provide happy environment inside as well as outside. Therefore,
the functional planning of a building must take into account the proper arrangements
of room/halls to satisfy the need of the client, good ventilation, lighting, acoustics,
unobstructed view in the case of community halls, cinema theatres, etc.

2.2 STRUCTURAL DESIGN :

2.2.1 OBJECTIVE :

• The objective of structural design is to design the structure for stability, strength and
serviceability.
• The design of a structure must satisfy three basic requirements:
• Stability to prevent overturning, sliding or buckling of the structure, or parts of it,
under the action of loads, Strength to resist safely the stresses induced by the loads in
the various structural members; and
• Serviceability to ensure satisfactory performance under service load conditions –
which implies providing adequate stiffness and reinforcements to contain deflections,
crack-widths and vibrations within acceptable limits, and also providing
impermeability and durability (including corrosion-resistance), etc.
• There are two other considerations that a sensible designer ought to bear in mind, viz.
economy and aesthetics. One can always design a massive structure, which has more-
than-adequate stability, strength and serviceability, but the ensuing cost of the
structure may be exorbitant, and the end product, far from aesthetic.
• In the words of Felix Candela, the designer of a remarkably wide range of reinforced
concrete shell structures, it is indeed a challenge, and a responsibility, for the structural
designer to design a structure that is not only appropriate for the architecture, but also
strikes the right balance between safety and economy.

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 2.2.2 SCOPE:

• Systematic procedure for design of a structure that shall be followed is as under:

Loading on a structure:
• Loads on a structure can be a Live Load, dead Load, Floor Finish, Wind Load,
Seismic Load, and Special Loading (e.g. equipments etc.)
• Evaluation of loads and determination of worst loading condition: - Load evaluation is
done as per requirement of a structure. All the loads are summarized and taken for all
further calculation.
• End condition determination: - Fixing of End Conditions for a structure is done as per
structural requirements. (e.g. Cantilever, simply supported, Fix end conditions)
• Assumption of material properties: - Material properties can be Grade of Steel and
Concrete, Density, Type etc. For all marine structures concrete used is M50 and for all
other works it is M 40. Residential structures have been designed in M35. The grade
of concrete is assumed as above with Durability as the main criterion.
• Assumption of sectional details and reworking of sectional details: - Evaluation of a
minimum sectional requirement (Thickness, Depth etc.) for maximum Bending
Moment and Shear force.
• Check of section for adequacy of shear, bending, and deflection: - Check the section
for permissible one way / two way shear, deflection, and bending as per IS Code
provision.
• Determination of steel requirements: - Evaluation of a minimum steel required and
main steel requirement. Coal provision of minimum steel is taken into consideration
while determination of steel to be provided for a given section. The sections are not
designed for sudden failure.
• Transmission of loads: - Evaluation of load transmission (e.g. from slab to beam,
beam to column, column to foundation). Designs are first done by evaluation of loads
on all slabs at the top section, which is then transferred to the respective column
through the beam. Subsequently loads on the slab below this level are taken and the
loads from the top column are transferred to the column below till we reach ground
floor. All loads are then transferred to the foundation system.

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 CHAPTER 3 TYPES OF STRUCTURES

The different types of structures that have been used in this project are listed as below:

• R.C.C Structures.
• Shear walls.
• PT slabs.
• Curtain walls.
• Acrylic glass.

3.1 SELECTION CRITERIA :

• Morphology.
• Capacity Limits.
• Code Requirements.
• Cost.
• Load Conditions.
• Resources and Technology.
• Sustainability.
• Synergy.

3.2 STATEMENT OF PROJECT :

3.2.1 SALIENT FEATURES :

• Name of the block Cottage

• Building typology Recreational
• No of stories Ground floor
• No of staircases 0
• No of lifts 0
• Type of construction R.C.C framed structure
• Types of walls Brick wall

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 3.2.2 GEOMETRIC DETAILS :

• Floor to floor height: 4m

• Height of plinth: 0.6m
• Depth of foundation: 1.5m

3.2.3 MATERIALS :

• Concrete grade M25

• All steel grades Fe500
• Soil type Black soil
• Bearing capacity of soil 300KN/M2

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 CHAPTER 4 LITERATURE STUDY

4.1 R.C.C. BUILDINGS :

Reinforced concrete (RC) is a composite material in which concrete's relatively low

tensile strength and ductility are counteracted by the inclusion of reinforcement having
higher tensile strength and/or ductility.

The reinforcement is usually, though not necessarily, steel reinforcing bars (rebar) and is
usually embedded passively in the concrete before the concrete sets. Reinforcing
schemes are generally designed to resist tensile stresses in particular regions of the
concrete that might cause unacceptable cracking and/or structural failure.

Modern reinforced concrete can contain varied reinforcing materials made of steel,
polymers or alternate composite material in conjunction with rebar or not. Reinforced
concrete may also be permanently stressed (in compression), so as to improve the
behavior of the final structure under working loads. The most common methods of doing
this are known as pre-tensioning and post-tensioning.

For a strong, ductile and durable construction the reinforcement needs to have the
following properties at least:

• High relative strength

• High toleration of tensile strain
• Good bond to the concrete, irrespective of pH,
moisture, and similar factors
• Thermal compatibility, not causing unacceptable
stresses in response to changing temperatures.
• Durability in the concrete environment,
irrespective of corrosion or sustained stress for
example.

Figure 4.1: Typical R.C.C wall

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 4.1.1 ADVANTAGES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE :

• Reinforced concrete has a high compressive strength compared to other building

materials.
• Due to the provided reinforcement, reinforced concrete can also withstand a good
amount tensile stress.
• Fire and weather resistance of reinforced concrete is fair.
• The reinforced concrete building 1is more durable than any other building system.
• Reinforced concrete, as a fluid material in the beginning, can1 be economically
molded into a nearly limitless range of shapes.
• The maintenance cost of reinforced concrete is very low.
• In structure like footings, dams, piers etc. reinforced concrete is the most economical
construction material.
• It acts like a rigid member with minimum deflection.
• As reinforced concrete can be molded to any shape required, it is widely used in
precast structural components. It yields rigid members with minimum apparent
deflection.
• Compared to the use of steel in structure, reinforced concrete requires less skilled
labour for the erection of structure.

4.1.2 DISADVANTAGES OF REINFORCED CONCRETE :

• The tensile strength of reinforced concrete is

about one-tenth of its compressive strength.
• The main steps of using reinforced concrete are
mixing, casting, and curing. All of this affects the
final strength.
• The cost of the forms used for casting RC is relatively
higher.
• For multi-storied building the RCC column section
for is larger than steel section as the compressive Figure 4.2: Components of R.C.C
strength is lower in the case of RCC.
• Shrinkage causes crack development and strength loss.

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 4.1.3 COMPONENTS OF R.C.C. STRUCTURE :

• Slabs
• Beams
• Columns
• Footings
• Staircase

4.2 PHILOSOPHIES FOR DESIGN OF R.C.C. :

Three philosophies for design of reinforced concrete, pre stressed concrete as well as
steel structures.

• Working stress method

• Ultimate load method
• Limit state method.

General :

• Working stress method was the principal method prevalent.

• Later on the ultimate load method came in use because of its more rational approach.
• There has been a transaction to limit state method because of its still more rational
approach.

4.2.1 WORKING STRESS METHOD :

• Traditional method used for reinforced concrete design where it is assumed that
concrete is elastic, steel & concrete act together elastically the relationship between
loads and stresses is linear right up to collapse of structure.
• The basis of the method is that the permissible stress for concrete and steel are not
exceeded anywhere in structure subjected to working loads.
• The sections are designed in accordance with Elastic theory of
• Bending assuming that both materials obey Hooke’s Law.
• The Elastic Theory assumes a linear variation of strain and stress from zero at neutral
axis to maximum at extreme fibre.

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 Figure 4.3: Stress – strain curve in working stress design

Where,
• At = Area of tension steel
• b = width of the section
• C = total force of compression
• D = depth of the section
• d = effective depth
• jd = lever arm
• Nd = depth of natural axis
• T = total force of Tension
• Fcb = permissible compressive stress in concrete
• Fst = permissible compressive stress in steel
• Σc = compressive strain in concrete

Assumptions :

• Bernoulli’s assumption stating, a section which is alpine before bending remains plain
after bending.
• Bond between steel and concrete is perfect within the elastic limit of steel.
• The tensile strength of concrete is ignored
• Concrete is Elastic; the stress varies linearly form zero at neutral axis to maximum at
the extreme fibre
• The modular ratio m has the value (280/3)

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 Draw backs :

• Concrete is not elastic. The inelastic behaviour of it starts right from very low stresses.
The actual stress distribution in a concrete section cannot be described by a triangular
stress diagram.
• Since factor of safety is on stress under working loads, there is no way to account for
different degrees of different types of loads.
• With elastic theory, it is impossible to determine the actual factor of safety with
respect to loads.
• It is difficult to account for shrinkage and creep effects by using the working stress
method.

4.2.2 LIMIT STATE METHOD :

• Originated from ultimate or plastic design.

• Object of design is to achieve probability that a structure will not become
unserviceable in its lifetime for the use for which it is intended, it will not reach a limit
state.
• Structure should be able to withstand safety all loads that are liable to act on it
throughout its life and it should also satisfy the serviceability requirements, such as
limitations on deflections and cracking.
• Relevant limit states must be considered in design to ensure and adequate degree of
safety and serviceability.

4.2.3 LIMIT STATE OF COLLAPSE :

• The state corresponds to the maximum load carrying capacity.

• Violation of collapse limit state implies failure in sense that a clearly defined limit
state of structural usefulness has been exceeded.
• However, it doesn’t mean a complete collapse.
• This limit state may correspond to

 Flexure
 Compression
 Shear
 Torsion

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 4.2.4 LIMIT STATE OF SERVICEABILITY :

The state corresponds to development of excessive deformation and is used for checking
members in which magnitude of deformations may limit the use of structure or its
components.

• This limit may correspond to

• Deflection
• Cracking
• Vibration
• Limit state design provides a unified rational basis for design of building structures of
all materials
• Expressed inequality

4.3 LIMIT STATE METHOD AND WORKING STRESS METHOD :

• Design of reinforced concrete structural members involves the knowledge of loads

material properties and factor of safety.
• The parameters that involve the element of prediction are referred to as non-
deterministic and there is no guarantee that they will actually occur. This forms the
basis of limit state design.
• In limit state design, parameters are determined based on observations taken over a
period of time. These parameters will thus be influenced by change or random effect.
Such a process is referred to as a stochastic process.
• In limit state design, stress in an element are obtained from design loads (including
load factors) and compared with design strengths (including safety factors).
• In working stress design method the stresses in an element are obtained from working
loads and compared with permissible stresses.
• The main difference between two methods lies in the fat that in farmer, a member is
considered in its limit state. Where as in later in its working stage.
• Structural members designed on basis of permissible stresses using a factor of safety
regardless of different working conditions and load combinations actually had
different safety margins.
• Limit state method is based on physical parameters. The partial safety factors are
based on statistical and probabilistic grounds and can be controlled.
• Thus, it is a more scientific approach for the design of reinforced concrete structures.

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 Limit state of collapse(flexure) :

Design for the limit state of collapse in flexure shall be based on assumptions given
below:

• Plane sections normal to the axis of bending remain plane after bending.
• The maximum strain in concrete at the outermost compression edge is taken as 0.0035
in bending.
• The relationship between the compressive stress distribution and the strain in concrete
may be assumed to be rectangular, trapezoid, parabola or any other shape.

4.4 RULES FOR CALCULATING ROTATION CONTRIBUTIONS :

• Case-1 : Without sides way.

• Definition : “Restrained moment at a joint is the algebraic sum of FE.M’s of
different members meeting at that joint.”
i. Sum of the restrained moment of a joint and all rotation contributions of the far ends
of members meeting at that joint is multiplied by respective rotation factors to get
the required near end rotation contribution. For the first cycle when far end
contributions are not known, they may be taken as zero (Ist approximation).
ii. By repeated application of this calculation procedure and proceeding from joint to
joint in an arbitrary sequence but in a specific direction, all rotation contributions are
known. The process is usually stopped when end moment values converge. This
normally happens after three or four cycles. But values after 2nd cycle may also be
acceptable for academic.
• Case-2 : With side sway (joint translations)
• In this case in addition to rotation contribution, linear displacement contributions
(Sway contributions) of columns of a particular storey are calculated after every cycle
as follows:
• For the first cycle.
i. → Linear Displacement Contribution (LDC) of a column = Linear displacement
factor (LDF) of a particular column of a story multiplied by [storey moment +
contributions at the ends of columns of that story]
• Linear displacement factor (LDF) for columns of a storey = −32
• Linear displacement factor of a column = −32k Σk Where k=stiffness of the column
being

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 • considered and Σk is the sum of stiffness of all
• columns of that storey.
• (B) → Storey moment = Storey shear x13of storey height.
• (C) → Storey shear : It may be considered as reaction of column at horizontal beam /
slab levels due to lateral loads by considering the columns of each sotrey as simply
supported beams in vertical direction. “If applied load gives + R value (according to
sign conversion of slope deflection method), storey shear is +ve or vice versa.”
(2000)
• Consider a general sway case.

4.5 TYPES OF LOADS :

The loads are broadly classified as vertical loads, horizontal loads and longitudinal loads.
The vertical loads consist of dead load, live load and impact load. The horizontal loads
comprises of wind load and earthquake load. The longitudinal loads i.e. tractive and
braking forces are considered in special case of design of bridges, gantry girders etc.

4.5.1 DEAD LOAD :

Dead loads are permanent or stationary loads which are transferred to structure
throughout the life span. Dead load is primarily due to self weight of structural members,
permanent partition walls, fixed permanent equipment's and weight of different materials.

4.5.2 IMPOSED LOADS OR LIVE LOADS :

Live loads are either movable or moving loads with out any acceleration or impact. There
are assumed to be produced by the intended use or occupancy of the building including
weights of movable partitions or furniture etc. The floor slabs have to be designed to
carry either uniformly distributed loads or concentrated loads whichever produce greater
stresses in the part under consideration. Since it is unlikely that any one particular time
all floors will not be simultaneously carrying maximum loading, the code permits some
reduction in imposed loads in designing columns, load bearing walls, piers supports and
foundations.

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 4.5.3 IMPACT LOADS :

Impact load is caused by vibration or impact or acceleration. Thus, impact load is equal
to imposed load incremented by some percentage called impact factor or impact
allowance depending upon the intensity of impact.

4.5.4 WIND LOADS :

Wind load is primarily horizontal load caused by the movement of air relative to earth.
Wind load is required to be considered in design especially when the heath of the
building exceeds two times the dimensions transverse to the exposed wind surface.For
low rise building say up to four to five storeys, the wind load is not critical because the
moment of resistance provided by the continuity of floor system to column connection
and walls provided between columns are sufficient to accommodate the effect of these
forces. Further in limit state method the factor for design load is reduced to 1.2
(DL+LL+WL) when wind is considered as against the factor of 1.5(DL+LL) when wind
is not considered. IS 1893 (part 3) code book is to be used for design purpose.

4.5.5 EARTHQUAKE LOAD :

Earthquake loads are horizontal loads caused by the earthquake and shall be computed in
accordance with IS 1893. For monolithic reinforced concrete structures located in the
seismic zone 2, and 3 without more than 5 storey high and importance factor less than 1,
the seismic forces are not critical. (875)

Figure 4.4: Sesmic load acting

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 4.6 ANALYSIS :

Slab loads will be transferred to beam’s equalant UDL’s by

• One way

• Two way

Figure 4.5: Slab Analysis

• Beams are analysed as continuous beams and bending moments are arrived using
moment distribution method.
• Wherever equal spans and equal loading are there a protype beam was analysed and
adopted for remaining beams.
• Reaction’s from continuous beams were calculated and cumulated at each column
support of one floor and multiple by no. of floors to get total load of column at base.
• Loads on footing are same as column’s loads at the base.
• Grouping is done for columns and footings accordingly to the loads.

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 CHAPTER 5 STAGES IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN

The process of structural design involves the following stages.

• Structural planning.
• Action of forces and computation of loads.
• Methods of analysis.
• Member design.
• Detailing, Drawing and Preparation of schedules.

5.1 INSTRUCTURAL PLANNING :

After getting an architectural plan of the buildings, the structural planning of the building
frame is done. This involves determination of the following. Position and orientation of
columns.

a. Positioning of beams.
b. Spanning of slabs.
c. Layouts of stairs.
d. Selecting proper type of footing.

5.1.1 POSITIONING AND ORIENTATION OF COLUMNS :

Following are some of the building principles, which help in deciding the columns
positions.

i. Columns should preferably be located at (or) near the corners of a building, and at
the intersection of beams/walls.
ii. Select the position of columns so as to reduce bending moments in beams.
iii. Avoid larger spans of beams.
iv. Avoid larger centre-to-centre distance between columns.
v. Columns on property line.

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 Orientation of Columns :

Avoid projection of columns

• The projection of columns outside the wall in the room should be avoided as they not
only give bad appearance but also obstruct the use of floor space, creating problems in
placing furniture flush with the wall.
• The width of the column is required to be kept not less than 200mm to prevent the
column from being slender. The spacing of the column should be considerably
reduced so that the load on column on each floor is less and the necessity of large
sections for columns does not arise.

5.1.2 POSITIONING OF BEAMS :

• Beams shall normally be provided under the walls or below a heavy concentrated load
to avoid these loads directly coming on slabs.
• Avoid larger spacing of beams from deflection and cracking criteria. (The deflection
varies directly with the cube of the span and inversely with the cube of the depth i.e.
L3/D3. Consequently, increase in span L which results in greater deflection for larger
span).

5.1.3 SPANNING OF SLABS :

• This is decided by supporting arrangements. When the supports are only on opposite
edges or only in one direction, then the slab acts as a one way supported slab. When
the rectangular slab is supported along its four edges it acts as a one way slab when
Ly/Lx < 2.
• The two way action of slab not only depends on the aspect ratio but also on the ratio
of reinforcement on the directions. In one way slab, main steel is provided along with
short span only and the load is transferred to two opposite supports. The steel along
the long span just acts as the distribution steel and is not designed for transferring the
load but to distribute the load and to resist shrinkage and temperature stresses.
• A slab is made to act as a one way slab spanning across the short span by providing
main steel along the short span and only distribution steel along the long span. The
provision of more steel in one direction increases the stiffness of the slab in that
direction.

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 • According to elastic theory, the distribution of load being proportional to stiffness in
two orthogonal directions, major load is transferred along the stiffer short span and the
slab behaves as one way. Since, the slab is also supported over the short edge there is a
tendency of the load on the slab by the side of support to get transferred to the nearer
support causing tension at top across this short supporting edge.
• Since, there does not exist any steel at top across this short edge in a one way slab
interconnecting the slab and the side beam, cracks develop at the top along that edge.
The cracks may run through the depth of the slab due to differential deflection
between the slab and the supporting short edge beam/wall. Therefore, care should be
taken to provide minimum steel at top across the short edge support to avoid this
cracking.
• A two way slab is generally economical compare to one way slab because steel along
both the spans acts as main steel and transfers the load to all its four supports. The two
way action is advantageous essentially for large spans (>3m) and for live loads
(>3kN/m2). For short spans and light loads, steel required for two way slabs does not
differ appreciably as compared to steel for two way slab because of the requirements
of minimum steel.

5.1.4 FOOTING :

• The type of footing depends upon the load carried by the column and the bearing
capacity of the supporting soil. The soil under the foundation is more susceptible to
large variations. Even under one small building the soil may vary from soft clay to a
hard murum.
• The nature and properties of soil may change with season and weather, like swelling in
wet weather. Increase in moisture content results in substantial loss of bearing capacity
in case of certain soils which may lead to differential settlements.
• It is necessary to conduct the survey in the areas for soil properties. For framed
structure, isolated column footings are normally preferred except in case of exists for
great depths, pile foundations can be an appropriate choice.
• If columns are very closely spaced and bearing capacity of the soil is low, raft
foundation can be an alternative solution. For a column on the boundary line, a
combined footing or a raft footing may be provided.

ECO RESORT 20
 5.2 ASSUMPTIONS :

The following are the assumptions made in the earthquake resistant design of structures:

• Earthquake causes impulsive ground motions, which are complex and irregular in
character
• Changing in period and amplitude each lasting for small duration.
• Therefore resonance of the type as visualized under steady-state sinusoidal excitations,
will not occur as it would need time to build up such amplitudes.
• Earthquake is not likely to occur simultaneously with wind or max. Flood or max. sea
waves.

ECO RESORT 21
 CHAPTER 6 METHODOLOGIES

This project is mostly based on software and it is essential to know the details about
these software’s. List of software’s used

1. Auto CAD
2. Microsoft Excel
3. STAAD.Pro

6.1 STAAD PRO :

• STAAD is powerful design software licensed by Bentley. STAAD stands for

Structural Analysis and Design. Any object which is stable under a given loading can
be considered as structure. So first find the outline of the structure, whereas analysis is
the estimation of what are the type of loads that acts on the beam and calculation of
shear force and bending moment comes under analysis stage. Design phase is
designing the type of materials and its dimensions to resist the load. This we do after
the analysis.
• To calculate S.F.D and B.M.D of a complex loading beam it takes about an hour. So,
when it comes into the building with several members it will take a week. STAAD pro
is a very powerful tool which does this job in just an hour’s STAAD is a best
alternative for high rise buildings.
• Now a days most of the high-rise buildings are designed by STAAD which makes a
compulsion for a civil engineer to know about this software.
• This software can be used to carry R.C.C, Steel, Bridge, Truss etc. according to
various country codes.

6.1.1 ALTERNATIVES FOR STAAD :

Struts, Robot, Sap, adds pro which gives details very clearly regarding reinforcement and
manual calculations. But these software’s are restricted to some designs only where as
STAAD can deal with several types of structure.

ECO RESORT 22
 6.1.2 STAAD EDITOR :

STAAD has very great advantage to other software’s i.e., STAAD editor. STAAD editor
is the programming for the structure we created and loads we taken all details are
presented in programming format in STAAD editor. This program can be used to analyze
other structures also by just making some modifications, but this require some
programming skills. So, load cases created for a structure can be used for another
structure using STAAD editor.

6.1.3 LIMITATIONS OF STAAD PRO :

i. Huge output data

ii. Even analysis of a small beam creates large output.
iii. Unable to show plinth beams.

6.2 AUTOCAD :

• AutoCAD is powerful software licensed by auto desk. The word auto came from
autodesk company and CAD stand for Computer Aided Design.
• AutoCAD is used for drawing different layouts, details, plans, elevations, sections and
different sections can be shown in AutoCAD.
• It is very useful software for civil, mechanical and electrical engineer. The importance
of this software makes every engineer a compulsion to learn this software’s.
• We use AutoCAD for drawing the plan, elevation of a residential building. We also use
AutoCAD to show the reinforcement details and design details of a stair case.
• AutoCAD is a very easy software to learn and much user friendly for anyone to handle
and can be learn quickly Learning of certain commands is required to draw in
AutoCAD.

6.3 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES :

RC structures can be designed by using the following design philosophies

• Working stress method for serviceability

• Ultimate load method for safety
• Limit state method

ECO RESORT 23
 6.3.1 WORKING STRESS METHOD :

• Working stress method was traditional method of design basically assumes that the
structural material behaves in a linear elastic manner, and that adequate safety can be
ensured by restricting the stresses induced in the material by the expected working
loads (service loads) on the structure.
• Permissible stresses are kept well below the material strength. The ratio of strength of
the material to the permissible stresses is referred to as the “Factor of safety “. The
design usually results in relatively large section of structural members (comparative
U.L.M) there by resulting in better serviceability, performance under the usual
working loads. This method is notable for its essential simplicity in concept as well as
in application.

6.3.2 ULTIMATE LOAD METHOD (ULM) :

• The ultimate load method design, the stress condition at the stage of impending
collapse of structure is analysed and the non - linear stress strain curves of concrete
and steel are made use of, the safety measures in design is introduced “Load factor
“which is the ratio of ultimate load (design load) to working load.
• This method generally results in more slender sections and often more economical
designs when compared to WSM, particularly when high strength steel and concrete
are used.

6.3.3 LIMIT STATE METHOD (LSM) :

• Limit state method is judicious amalgamation of WSM and ULM removing all
drawbacks of both methods but maintaining their good points.
• LSM aims for a comprehensive and rational solution to design problems by
considering safety at ultimate loads and serviceability at working loads.
• The structures shall be designed to carry design loads safety throughout its life and
satisfy the serviceability requirements such as limitations on deflection and cracking.
The acceptable limit for safety and serviceability requirements before failure occurs is
called a “Limit state “.
• The aim of design is to achieve acceptable probabilities so that the structures will not
become unfit for the use for which it is intended.

ECO RESORT 24
 • There are two types of limit states :

i. Limit state of collapse: Deals with strength, overturning, sliding, buckling, fatigue,
fracture etc.,
ii. Limit state of serviceability: Deals with comfort to accompany and malfunction,
caused by excessive deflection, crack width, vibration etc., and loss of durability
etc.,

6.4 METHOD OF ANALYSIS :

Structural analysis involves the determination of internal forces like axial forces, bending
moments, shear forces etc., in the component members for which these members are to
be designed under the action of given external loads.

The different approaches to structural analysis are as given below:

• Elastic analysis based on elastic theory.

• Limit analysis based on plastic theory or ultimate load theory.

In this project, an elastic analysis has been adopted.

Elastic analysis deals with the study of strength and behaviour of members and
structures at working loads.

The elastic analysis is based on the following assumptions:

• Relation between force and displacement is linear.

• Displacements are extremely small when compared to the geometry of the structure.

ECO RESORT 25
 CHAPTER 7 PLAN AND ELEVATION

7.1 PLAN :

• The auto cad plotting no.1 represents the plan of the Cottage. The block is located at
Lambasingi. In block the entire floor consists of a various room which occupies most
of the floor area.
• The plan shows the details of dimensions of each and every room and the type of
room and orientation of the different rooms like bed room, bathroom, living area, etc.
The entire plan area is about 304 sqm. The block only has ground floor.

FLOOR PLAN

ECO RESORT 26
 7.2 ELEVATION DIAGRAM ON STAAD Pro :

• The figure below represents the Elevation line diagram of the building in STAAD Pro.
Each support represents the location of different columns and beams in the structure.
The lines parallel to X- axis and Z- axis represent beams and the lines parallel to Y-
axis represent columns. The software is used in generating the entire structure using a
tool called transitional repeat and link steps. After using the tool, the structure created
can be analyzed in STAAD Pro under various loading cases.
• Below figure represents the skeletal structure of the building which is used to carry
out the analysis of our building.
• All the loadings are acted on this skeletal structure to carry out the analysis of the
building. This is not the actual structure but just represents the outline of the building
in STAAD Pro. A mesh is automatically created for the analysis of these building.

3D RENDERED VIEW

ECO RESORT 27
 CHAPTER 8 COLUMNS

8.1 COLUMNS POSITIONING :

• Columns should preferably be located at (or) near the corners of a building, and at the
intersection of beams/walls.
• Select the position of columns to reduce bending moments in beams.
• Avoid larger spans of beams.
• Avoid larger centre-to-centre distance between columns.

8.2 ORIENTATION :

• Avoid projection of columns

• Orient the column so that the depth of the column is contained in the major plane of
bending or is perpendicular to the major axis of bending.

COLUMN CENTRELINE

ECO RESORT 28
 8.3 INTRODUCTION :

A column or strut is a compression member, which is used primary to support axial

compressive loads and with a height of at least three it is least lateral dimension. A
reinforced concrete column is said to be subjected to axially load when line of the
resultant thrust of loads supported by column is coincident with the line of C.G of the
column in the longitudinal direction.

8.4 DESIGN OF COLUMN :

The design of column involves the following steps.

1. Categorization of columns :

• Internal columns or axially loaded columns

• Side columns or Columns subjected to axial load and uniaxial bending
• Corner columns or columns subjected to axial load and biaxial bending

2. Computation of floor loads :

• Exact method
• Approximate method
• Assessment of unit loads of Slab, Wall, Column
• Assessment of total load on column in each storey
• Marking of column load transfer areas
• Calculation of loads are each floor level

3. Calculation of moment in columns :

• Exact method
• Approximate method

4. Determination of effective length and type of column – short or long

5. Grouping of columns

ECO RESORT 29
 6. Design of column section :

• Appropriate equivalent axial load method

i. Preliminary design
ii. Allowance for moment in column
iii. Allowance for slenderness of column
iv. Calculation of total equivalent axial design load
v. Section design
vi. Check for moment in column

• Exact theoretical method

i. Axially loaded short columns

ii. Short columns under combined axial load and uniaxial bending
iii. Short columns under combined axial load and biaxial bending
iv. Slender columns

DESIGN OF A COLUMN

ECO RESORT 30
 0.350 m

DEFLECTION SHEAR BENDING

• DESIGN OF A COLUMN :

STEP 1
Pu = 41.93 KN
Mux = 5.22 KN-m
Muy = 58.39 KN-m
fck = 25 N/mm
fy = 500 N/mm²
d’ = 25

ECO RESORT 31
 STEP 2
As per IS:456, the area of longitudinal steel in a column shall not be less than 0.8% nor
exceed more than 6% of gross areas.
Assuming that, asc=3% of ag
ac= ag-0.03ag = 0.97ag
Calculating the gross area of the column:
Puz = 0.45*fck*ac+0.75*fy*asc
41.93 x 103 = 0.45 x 25 x (0.97ag) + 0.75 x 500 x 0.03ag
ag = 1892.14 mm2
Length of the column = 4 m
leff = 0.65 x L
= 0.65 x 4
= 2.6 m = 2600 mm
For column to be designed as short column, leff/b < 12
b ≥ leff/12
b ≥ 2600/12
b ≥ 216.6 mm
Consider the section b = 300mm d = 350mm
asc = 0.03 ag = 0.03 x 300 x 350
asc = 3150 mm2
Assuming 16 mm dia. bars,
No of bars = asc/(area of single bar)
n = 3150/(π/4 122 )
n=8
Design of lateral Reinforcement:
Diameter of lateral tie = ¼ (longitudinal bar dia.)
= 2 mm
(As Per design guidelines, in no case shall the lateral reinforcement bar dia. can be less
than 6 mm)

ECO RESORT 32
 Therefore, Consider diameter of Ties = 8mm
Maximum spacing
1) b = 300mm
2) 16*longitudinal bar dia. = 256mm
3) 300mm
Considering one of the above three values
Provide 10mm dia. bars as lateral ties @ 300mm c/c.

ECO RESORT 33
 CHAPTER 9 BEAMS

9.1 POSITIONING OF BEAMS :

PRIMARY BEAMS :

• The beams that are connecting columns for transferring loads of a structure directly to
the columns are known as primary beams.

SECONDARY BEAMS :

• The beams that are connecting primary beams for transferring loads of a structure to
the primary beams are known as primary beams.
• These beams are provided for supporting and reducing the deflection of beams and
slabs.

BEAM CENTRELINE

ECO RESORT 34
 9.2 INTRODUCTION :

A reinforced concrete beam should be able to resist tensile, compressive and shear stress
in it by loads on beam. Concrete is strong in compression but very weak in tension. Plane
concrete beams are thus limited in carrying capacity by load tensile strength. Steel is very
strong in tension. Thus, tensile weakness of concrete is to overcome by provision of
reinforcing steel in the tension zone around the concrete to make reinforced concrete
beam.

9.3 TYPES OF BEAMS :

There are 3 types of beams :

• Singly reinforced beams.

• Doubly reinforced beams.
• Flanged beams.

9.3.1 SINGLY REINFORCED BEAMS :

In these beams reinforcing steel bars are placed near bottom of the beam where they are
more effective in resisting tensile bending stresses. In singly reinforced cantilever beams
reinforcing bars are placed near the top of the beam.

9.3.2 DOUBLE REINFORCED BEAMS :

These beams are reinforced both in compression and tension regions. The section of
beam may be rectangular, T or L section. The necessity of using steel in compr4ession
zone due to
i. When depth of the beam is restricted the strength available from a singly reinforced
beam is inadequate.
ii. At support of continuous beam where bending moment changes sign.

9.3.3 FLANGED BEAMS :

In most reinforced concrete structures, concrete slabs and beams are cast monolithic.
Thus, beam from part of floor system together with slab. In bending the slab forming the

ECO RESORT 35
 top part of the beam at mid-span would be in compression for a definable width greater
than width of the rib. Thus, increasing the moment of resistance for given rib width. At
continuous supports the position is reversed. The slab in tension and part of it have
cracked in tension, this beam is equivalent to rectangular section at support.

9.4 DESIGN OF BEAMS :

• Reinforced concrete beams are structural elements that designed to carry transverse
external loads. The loads cause bending moment, shear forces and in some cases
torsion across their length.
• Moreover, concrete is strong in compression and very weak in tension. Thus, Steel
reinforcement used to take up tensile stresses in reinforced concrete beams.
• Furthermore, beams support the loads from slabs, other beams, walls, and columns.
They transfer the loads to the columns supporting them.
• Additionally, beams can be simply supported, continuous, or cantilevered. they can be
designed as rectangular, square, T-shaped, and L-shaped sections.
• Beams can be singly reinforced or doubly reinforced. The latter are used if the depth
of the beam is restricted.
• Finally, in this article, the design of rectangular reinforced concrete beam will be
presented.

9.5 DESIGN GUIDELINES :

Prior to the design of reinforced concrete beam begin, there are certain assumption that
need to be made.

IS CODE PROVISIONS

• The loading on beam is as taken as per clause 24.5 of IS:456-2000.

• For continuous beam with equal/unequal spans and equal/unequal loads, the bending
moment is obtained by using Kani’s method.
• Effective span and effective depth of beam is same as explained in slab provisions.
• The beams at mid span are designed as T-beams and the same steel reinforcement is
provided for all beams and it is minimum.

ECO RESORT 36
 • At supports when the moment of resistance exceeds balancing moment, the section
is designed as a double reinforced section.
• Minimum r4einforcement I tension shall not be less than Ast/bd=0.85/Fy.
(clause 26.5.1.1(a)).Minimum reinforcement in tension shall not exceed 0.04bxD.
(clause 26.5.1.1(b)).
• Maximum area of compression n reinforcement shall not exceed 0.04bxD and
reinforcement is enclosed by strength side. (clause 26.5.1.2).
• Nominal shear stress for uniform depth shall be τv=vu/bd. ( clause 40.1)
• Minimum shear reinforcement will be provided when τv<τc given in table-19.
• Maximum spacing of shear reinforcement shall not exceed the least of 0.75d or 300
mm for vertical stirrups (clause 26.5.1.5).
• Shear reinforcement will be provided to carry a shear equal to Vu-τc bd . The
strength of shear reinforcement Vs shall be calculated for vertical stirrups.
• Vs = (0.87 Fy Asv d)/Sv
• At least 1/3rd positive moment reinforcement in simple beam and 1/4th positive
moment reinforcement in continuous beam shall extend along the same phase of the
member to the support to a length equal to Vu/3 (clause 26.2.2.3).
• Specifications regarding spacing of stirrups placed in doubly reinforced beams:
• Compression steel placed in doubly reinforced beams also had to be restrained
against local buckling during its action like the compression steel. Accordingly, the
diameter of the stirrups should be 6 mm.

ECO RESORT 37
 DESIGN OF BEAM

ECO RESORT 38
 

DEFLECTION SHEAR BENDING

STEP 1
Self-weight of the beam = width of the beam X overall depth of the beam X density of R.C
= 0.3 x 0.3 x 25 = 2.25 KN/m
Dead+ load considered for the beam = 10.625 KN/m
Live load = 2 KN/m
Total load (w) = 15.068 KN/m
Bending moment (M) = (wl2)/8
= (15.068 x 〖 5.281 〗 2)/8 = 52.52 KN-m
Factored Moment (M.R) = 52.52 x 1.5 = 78.79 KN-m

STEP 2
ASSUMING UNDER REINFORCED SECTION:
M. R = 0.87 fy Astx (d- )
At = 613.465 mm2
Actual depth:

X = = 107mm
.

ECO RESORT 39
  Xm = = 205.73mm.

X<Xm, The X value is less than Xm, hence the assumption is correct
We now have to find At (min) and At (max)

At(min) = =
= 188.435 mm2
At (max) = 0.04bd = 3200 mm2
At (min) < At (provided) < At (max), Hence safe.

STEP 3
Let the diameter of the steel bars be 12mm
Number of bars = = = 4.05, hence 4 bars
Hence 4 bars of 12mm diameter on each side are used in the beam design.

ECO RESORT 40
 CHAPTER 10 SLAB

Slabs are constructed to provide flat surfaces, usually horizontal, in building floors, roofs,
bridges, and other types of structures. The slab may be supported by walls, by reinforced
concrete beams usually cast monolithically with the slab, by structural steel beams, by
columns, or by the ground. The depth of a slab is usually very small compared to its
span.

SLAB DESIGN OF ENTIRE FLOOR

ECO RESORT 41
 10.1 CLASSIFICATION OF CONCRETE SLABS :

In general, slabs are classified as being one-way or two-way. Slabs that primarily deflect
in one direction are referred to as one-way slabs. When slabs are supported by columns
arranged generally in rows so that the slabs can deflect in two directions they are usually
referred to as two-way slabs.

ONE-WAY AND TWO-WAY SLABS :

One more definition regarding one-way and two –way slab is that if one direction span to
other direction span ratio (or more precisely if longer dimension to shorter dimension
ratio) is greater than 2 it is termed as two-way slab, otherwise if less than two it is termed
as two-way slab.

10.2 CLASSIFICATION OF TWO-WAY SLABS :

10.2.1 FLAT SLABS :

• Flat slabs include two-way reinforced concrete slabs with capitals, drop panels, or
both. These slabs are very satisfactory for heavy loads and long spans.
• Although the formwork is more expensive than for flat plates, flat slabs will require
less concrete and reinforcing than would be required for flat plates with the same loads
and spans.
• They are particularly economical for warehouses, parking and industrial buildings, and
similar structures, where exposed drop panels or capitals are acceptable.

ECO RESORT 42
 10.2.2 FLAT PLATES SLAB :

• These are solid concrete slabs of uniform depths that transfer loads directly to the
supporting columns without the aid of beams or capitals or drop panels.

Slabs are also designed as per IS456-2000

10.3 DESIGN OF TWO WAY SLAB :

Slab: S1 = 4200 x 3400 mm

Edge Condition = “Two adjacent edges are discontinuous”
Clear span in shorter direction (Lx) = 3.40 + 0.125 = 3.525m
Lear span in longer direction (Ly) = 4.20 + 0.125 = 4.325m
Width of support = 230 mm

ECO RESORT 43
  Grade of materials :
Concrete = M25 ; Steel = fe415
Side ratio :

= = 1.230 <2.0
Hence designed as a Two way Slab.

The code considers a slab is divided in each direction into middle strips and edge strips.
The width of the middle strip = 3/4th of the span and
the width of edge strip = 1/8th of span

From Indian Standards code book:

Using interpolation we get the values of x and y

x = 0.0867 and y = 0.0578

LOADS :
Live load = 2 KN/m2
Floor finish = 1.5 KN/m2
Dead load = 0.125 x 25 = 3.125 KN/m2
Total load = 6.625 KN/m2 x 1 m = 6.625 KN/m
Factored load =1.5 x 6.625= 9.9375 KN/m

BENDING MOMENT :

Shorter span
Mx = x wlx2 = 0.0867 x 9.9375 x 3.5252
= 10.7 kN-m.
My = y wlx2 = 0.0578 x 9.9375 x 3.5252
= 7.37 kN-m

ECO RESORT 44
  As Mx is maximum, Using the higher value of bending moment, the effective depth of
slab is calculated.
BM = 0.36 fck bxm (d-0.42xm)
10.7 x 106= 0.36 x 1000 x 0.48d x 25 (d-0.42 x 0.48d)
3102.269 = d2
d = 55.69 = 60mm ≈ 80mm
Taking Clear cover as 20mm
The depth calculated above is too small to be safe in deflection; hence we are increasing
the value of depth.
Hence d = 130 mm and D = 150 mm

CALCULATION OF REINFORCEMENT
Equating,
Total compressive force = Total Tensile force
Reinforcement in middle strip :
Steel along shorter span,

X- Direction :
0.36 fck bxm = 0.87 fy Astx
0.36 x 25 x 1000x 0.48 x 130 = 0.87 x 415 x Astx
Astx = 1555.46 mm2
Adopt 10mm diameter bars :
Spacing = = = 50.4 = 50 mm

Number of bars = = 19.8 = 20 bars

Provide 20 - 10mm diameter bars with 50 mm c/c spacing.

ECO RESORT 45
  Y-direction :
The area of steel Asty is calculated by

BMy = Force of tension x Lever arm

BMy =0.87 fy Astx (d’- )

Providing 8mm diameter bars,
d’ = d – 10/2 - 8/2 (10mm and 8mm diameter respectively)
d’ = 130 – 5 – 4 = 121 mm
7.137 x 106 = 0.87 x 415 x Asty (121 – (415 x Asty)/(25 x 1000) )

Hence, Asty = 167.1 mm2

Spacing = (π/4 x 82)/167.1 ×1000 = 300mm

Number of bars = = 3.32 = 4 bars

Provide 4 - 8mm diameter bars at 300 mm c/c spacing.

Reinforcement in edge strip :

As per IS code, a minimum reinforcement of 0.12% of the total cross-section of area

should be provided along the edge strips
= 0.12% x bD
= 0.0012 x 1000 x 150 = 180 mm2.
Spacing along shorter span = (ast/Ast) x (lx/8) = ((π/4) x 8 2 x 3525)/(180 x 8)
= 122.98 = 120mm
Spacing along longer span = (ast/Ast) x (lx/8) = ((π/4) x 8 2 x 4325)/(180 x 8)
= 150.89 = 150 mm
As per IS code the spacing should be < 3d = 390
Hence safe.

ECO RESORT 46
  Corner Reinforcement (or) Tension Reinforcement:

The Area of torsion reinforcement = 75% of the area required for maximum mid span
moment and this should be provided for a length of 1/5th of effective span.

Torsional reinforcement area = 75% of Atx = (3/4) x 1555.46 = 1166.59 mm2

Shorter span: lx/5 = 3525/5 = 725mm
Longer span: ly/5= 4325/5 = 865mm
Spacing Lx: ((π/4) x 82 x 725)/1166.59 = 31.22 mm = 30mm with diameter of 8mm
Spacing Ly: ((π/4) x 82 x 865)/1166.59 = 37.2 = 35 mm with diameter of 8mm.
Check for development length:
Shorter span:
Ld ≤ (M1/V) + Lo

Ld = (∅ σs)/(4τbd )

τbd = 1.6 x 1.2 (60% increase for HYSD)

= (10 x 0.87 x 415)/(4 x 1.2 x 1.6) = 470.11mm = 0.47m

Let Lo = 0
M1 = 0.87 fy Astx (d – (fy Astx / fck b )
=0.87x 415 x 1555.46 x (130 – (415 x 1555.46)/(2 x 25 x 1000) )
= 32.87 kN-m
Shear Force (V) = (wlx)/2 = (9.9375 x 3.525)/2 = 17.51KN

M1/V = 1.3 x 32.87/17.51 = 2.43m

Ld ≤ M1/V , hence it is safe.

ECO RESORT 47
  Longer span:

Ld = (∅ σs)/(4τbd )

τbd =1.6 x 1.2 (60% increase for HYSD)

= (8 x 0.87 x 415)/(4 x 1.2 x 1.6 ) = 376.08 mm = 0.38 m

M1 = 0.87 x 415 x 167.1 x (100 – (415 x 167.1)/(2 x 25 x 100) )

= 3.87 KN-m
V = (9.9375 x 4.325)/2 = 21.48

M1/V =1.3 x 3.87/21.48 = 0.23 m, Hence it is not safe.

L-Bend = 0.23 + 0.8 = 0.31 m

U-Bend = 0.31 + 0.8 + 0.3= 0.42 mm

Ld ≤ M1/V , Hence U-bend is safe.

Check for deflection :

X-Direction :

l_x/d < 20 = (3525 )/130 = 27.11 > 20

Hence tension reinforcement is necessary.
% of tension reinforcement = A_(tx )/bd x 100= 1555.46/(1000 x 100) x 100 = 1.55%
fs = 0.58 x 415 = 240 N/mm2
Modification factor = 0.9
l/d = 20 x 0.9 = 36

27.11 < 36, hence safe

ECO RESORT 48
 Y-Direction :

l_y/d = 4325/130 = 33.27 > 20

Hence % tension reinforcement required
= (A_ty)/bd x 100 = 1166.59/(1000 x 100) x 100 = 0.16%
Modification factor = 1.8
l_y/d= 20 x 1.8 = 36

33.27 < 36, Hence it is safe in deflection.

SLAB PANEL

SLAB DESIGN CORNER STRESSES IN SLAB

ECO RESORT 49
 CHAPTER 11 FOOTINGS

Foundations are structural elements that transfer loads from the building or individual
column to the earth. If these loads are to be properly transmitted, foundations must be
designed to prevent excessive settlement or rotation, to minimize differential settlement
and to provide adequate safety against sliding and overturning.

Isolated Rectangular Footing :

Column size = 300 mm x 300mm

Grade of Materials :
fck =25N/mm2; fy = 500N/mm2.

Available Data:
Load from the column (Pu) = 850kN
Bearing capacity of soil (fb) = 300kN/mm2

DESIGN :

Load from column (Pu) = 850kN

Self wt. of footing 10% of Pu = 85 kN
Total load on footing = 935kN
Area of footing (Af ) = Pu/fb
= 935/250
= 3.74m2
Length to breadth ratio of column = 300/300 = 1;
i.e.; D = 1 b

ECO RESORT 50
 The same ratio is followed for footing also i.e.; L = 1B
From the ratio,
Lf = 1.696m = 1.80m

Bf = 2.20m = 2.20m

Area of footing provided = 3.96m2 > 3.74m2

Hence safe.

Net upward soil pressure for factored load (wu) = (1.5 x 935)/3.96 = 354.16 KN/m

DEPTH OF FOOTING FROM BENDING CONSIDERATION :

The Critical section for Bending Moment occurs at the face of the column.
Maximum Bending Moment along longitudinal direction,
BMx = wux2/2

Here x = (Lf – b)/2

= (354.16 x (2.2 x 0.785)2) / 2
= 240.07 KN-m

Maximum Bending Moment along transverse direction

Bmy = wuy2/2

Here y = (Bf – D)/2

= (354.16 x (1.8 x 0.95)2) / 2
= 287. 62 KN-m.

Consider higher moment value of above two

So maximum Bending Moment = 287.62 KN-m.

ECO RESORT 51
 Effective depth is calculated for this moment value

BM = 0.36 x fck x b x 0.48d (d - 0.42xm)

For Fe 500 xm =0.48 d

287.62 x 106 = 0.36 x 25 x 1800 x 0.798d2

D=215mm
The above value of depth obtained is very low from shear consideration.
Hence increase the value by 335mm.

D = 215+335 = 550mm
Provide effective cover = 50 mm
Overall depth D = 600mm.

Area of steel required :

BMx = 0.87 x fy x (Ast) x (d – (fy Astx / fck b))

287.62 x 106 = 0.87 x 500 x [550 – {(415 x Astx) / (25 x 1800)}]

Astx = 1485.4 mm2

Adopt 10mm diameter bars,

Spacing = {(π/4) x 102)/1446.118} ×1800
= 95 mm c/c
Provide 10mm bars @ 95mm centre-to-centre.

Area of steel alloy in transverse direction

240.47 x 106 = 0.87 x 415 x Asty [540 – 7.54 x 10-3 Asty]

Asty = 1206.15 mm2

ECO RESORT 52
 Adopt 10mm diameter bars,
Spacing = {(π/4) x 102}/1026
= 160.65 mm
= 160 mm c/c
Provide 10mm bars @ 160mm centre-to-centre.

Check for 1-way shear :

The critical section for one way shear occurs at a distance ‘d’ from the face of the
column.
The maximum shear force, Vu = w. x1.
Where, x1 = 0.95 – d = 0.95 – 0.55 = 0.40 m
Vu = 354.16 x 1.8 x 0.40
= 254.99 KN

Nominal shear stress,

Ʈv = Vu/bd
= (254.99 x 102) / (1800 x 550)
= 0.26 N/mm2
Actual shear force p = (Ast/(b x d)) x 100
p = (1485.4/(1800 x 550)) x 100
p = 0.15 %

From IS 456, for M25 grade Concrete at p = 0.15%, c = 0.29 N/mm2

Ʈv< Ʈc
Hence, footing is safe in one way shear.

ECO RESORT 53
 Check for 2-way shear :

The critical section for 2-way shear occurs at a distance of ‘d/2’ along the periphery of
the column.
Vu = [(1.8 x 2.2) – (0.78 x 0.85)] x 354.16
= 1167.67 KN

Nominal shear stress,

Ʈv = Vu/(bo d)
= (1167.66 x 103) / (3260 x 550)
= 0.651 N/mm2
Actual shear stress,
Ʈ c = ks x Ʈc

Where, ks = 0.5 + Ʈc , < 1

Ʈc = (shorter side of column)/(longer side of column)

Ʈc = 230/300 = 0.77

ks = 0.50 + 0.77, < 1

So, ks =1.

Ʈc = 1 x Ʈc

Where, Ʈc = 0.25√(fck )
= 0.25√25
= 1.25 N/mm2
Ʈv < Ʈ c
Hence, footing is safe in two way shear.

Check for development length :

ld = (∅ x σs) / (4τbd)

= (10 x 361) / (4τbd)

ECO RESORT 54
 For M15 grade concrete, τbd = 1.4 N/mm2.

Therefore, τ bd = 1.6 x 1.4 (60% increase for HYBP)

ld = (10 x 361) / (4 x 1.6 x 1.4)

= 402.90 mm
Where, ld = Development length.
Available length along x-direction = 785 – 50 = 735
Available length along y-direction = 950 – 50 = 900
ld < available
Hence, the footing is safe in bond.

Check for load transfer :

Nominal Bearing stress in column, σbr = (Factored Load) / (Area of column)

= (1.5 x 850 x 103) / (230 x 300)
= 17.06 N/mm2.
Allowable Bearing stress = 0.45 σu
= 0.45 x 25
= 11.25 N/mm2.

Since, Nominal Bearing stress > Allowable Bearing stress, it is unsafe. Hence, extra steel
has to be provided.

Excess Load, P = (18.47- 11.25) x 230 x 300 = 400.89 KN.

Excess steel = (Excess load) / (0.67σy)
= (400.89 x 103) / (0.67 x 415) = 1441.79 mm2

Using 16mm diameter bar,

No. of bars = 1441.79 / ((π/4) x 162) = 6.

ECO RESORT 55
ECO RESORT 56
 CHAPTER 12 SUMMARY

S.No. STRUCTURAL ELEMENT SPECIFICATIONS

1. Foundation Shallow foundation
2. Footing
Isolated footing
Size of footing : 2m X 2m
Depth : 550mm
Reinforcement details :
• 10mm dia. bars @ 100mm c/c
• Steel alloy in transverse direction
10mm dia. bars @ 150mm c/c.

3. Column
Rectangular column
Size : 300mm X 350mm
Reinforcement details :
• 16mm dia. bars @ 8 no.s
• Stirrups = 8mm lateral ties at pitch
of 300mm c/c.

4. Beam
Doubly reinforced beam
Size : 300mm X 300mm
Reinforcement details :
• 12mm dia. bars @ 4 no.s
• Stirrups = 10mm lateral ties at
pitch of 300mm c/c.

5. Slab
Two way slab
Depth : 115mm
Reinforcement details :
• 10mm dia. bars @ 50mm c/c in X-
direction.
• 8mm dia. bars @ 300mm c/c in Y-
direction.

ECO RESORT 57
 CHAPTER 13 CONCLUSION

Structurally a building may consist of load bearing walls and floors. The
floor slabs may be supported on beams which in turn may be supported on
walls or columns. But for a multi-storied structure, a building frame either
of steel or reinforced concrete is made. This frame is designed for all the
vertical and horizontal loads transmitted to it. The openings between the
columns, where necessary, will be filled with thin brick walls. A frame of
this type will consist of columns and beams built monolithically forming a
network. This provides rigidity to the connections of members. By this
arrangement the bending moments for the members of the structures are
reduced. Earthquake loads and other horizontal loads due to wind etc. are
evenly distributed to the whole structure. This makes the structure not only
safe but economical.

ECO RESORT 58
 CHAPTER 13 BIBLIOGRAPHY

• http://mtp.itd.co.th/ITD-CP/data/PileFoundationDesign.pdf. (n.d.).
• http://www.understandconstruction.com/pile-foundations.html. (n.d.).
• https://ocean-climate.org/?page_id=2133&lang=en. (n.d.). Retrieved from ocean-
climate.org/.
• https://www.firsttankguide.net/filters.php. (n.d.).
• Jennifer Gray, C. (2015, sep 17). https://edition.cnn.com/2015/09/17/world/oceans-
report/index.html. Retrieved from edition.cnn.com.
• MAIL, F. M. (2015). Marine life 'halves in 45 years': Overfishing, climate change and
pollution blamed for 'potentially catastrophic' decline.
• Mambra, S. (2019). 10 Endangered Ocean Species and Marine Animals. Marine
Insight. , 1.
• wwf. (2015, sep 16). https://www.wwf.org.uk/updates/crisis-global-oceans-
populations-marine-species-halve-size-1970. Retrieved from www.wwf.org.uk.

ECO RESORT 59