Geophysics

Prof. Dr.
Emad Hassan R. Al-Khersan
(Geophysicist)

Department of Oil and Gas Engineering

(3rd class)
References
 Course objectives


Getting familiar with the key aspects of geophysics such as, earth’s

gravity, magnetic fields and seismic wave propagation.


Obtaining a basic understanding about the nature of geophysical

research and how geophysical research is conducted in the oil and

gas exploration (deep investigations)

 What is Geophysics?

The branch of the geological science that study the physics of the
Earth. It is an applied branch of geophysics, which uses physical
methods, such as seismic, gravitational, magnetic, electrical and
electromagnetic at the surface of the Earth to measure the physical
properties of the subsurface, along with the anomalies in those
properties were noticed. It is most often used to detect the presence
and position of economically useful geological deposits, such as: ore
 minerals; fossil fuels ,  hydrocarbons; and groundwater aquifers.
Geophysics = Geological observations + Physical laws
 Branches of Geophysics
• Solid Earth Geophysics: (very deep- the interior of the Earth)
 Earthquakes, Tsunamis, Tectonics.
 Geodynamics
• Exploration Geophysics: (deep)
 Oil and Gas exploration.
• Environmental and Engineering Geophysics: (shallow)
 Minerals exploration.
 Groundwater exploration.
 Contamination delineation.
 Utility or object detection.
 Physical
Suitable for Methods
property
Salt domes, cavities and
Density contrast Gravity
Structure
Magnetic ores, basement
rocks, Magnetic
Magnetic & Electromagnetic
geological structures and Susceptibility
archeological studies

Ground water, cavities Resistivity Electric & Electromagnetic

Refraction
Engineering problems
(Shallow)
Elasticity Seismic
Oil and Gas exploration Reflection (Deep)

Radioactive ores Radiation intensity Radiometric

Geological structures,
Shallow salt domes, Temperature Geothermal
Anticlines and Fissures
Channels, Cables, Caves, Electromagnetic Ground Penetration
Pipes, River floor waves intensity Radar - GPR
 All the geophysical methods search for geophysical anomalies (such
as gravity, magnetic, electric,.. etc.,), which can be observed from the
abnormality of the contour lines. It gives an indication for the existence
of the subsurface features or/and structures. The anomaly may have
positive or negative signs depending on the subsurface or it may equals
to zero if nothing.
The suitability of a particular geophysical technique or a combination
of techniques depends very much on the physical property contrasts
involved between the target structure and the surroundings, depth extent
of the target and nature and thickness of the overburden.
 Gravity Method
 Gravity method is a non-destructive geophysical technique that
measures differences of density between subsurface rocks of the
Earth's gravitational field at specific locations. The basis on which the
gravity method depends is encapsulated in two laws by Newton,
namely his Universal Law of Gravitation and his Second Law of Motion.

The value of G is equal to )6.67 *10‾8 cm³/gm.sec² = dyne.cm²/gm² (c.g.s)

or (G = 6.67 *10‾¹¹ m³/kg.sec² = Newton.m²/kg² (m.kg.s)
This shows that the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity on Earth
(g) is directly proportional to the mass (M) of the Earth and inversely
proportional to the square of the Earth's Radius (r).
 Application of gravity method
1. Determine shape of the Earth.
2. Hydrocarbon exploration.
3. Regional Geological Studies.
4. Iso-static compensation determination.
5. Detection of subsurface cavities and geological mapping.
6. Location of buried rock valleys.
7. Determination of glacier thickness.
8. Tidal oscillations.
9. Basin Geometry.
10. Investigation of large and medium geological structure.
11. Indicated the existence of large positive and negative gravity anomalies
associated with island arcs and oceanic trenches.
12. Gravity surveying can also be used in the study of ancient suture zones, which
are interpreted as the sites of former plate boundaries within the continental
lithosphere.
13. Density Determination.
16. Location and elevation determination.
17. Watershed hydrology.
• The gravity field on the surface of the Earth is not uniformly the same
everywhere. It varies with the distribution of the mass materials below. A
gravity survey is an direct means of calculating the density property of
subsurface materials. It means the higher the gravity values, the denser the
rock beneath.

Units of gravity
• The mean value of gravity at the Earth's surface is about 980 gals. Variations
in gravity caused by density variations in the subsurface are of the order of
100 gu.
1 gal = 1000 or 10³ milligal or 1 milligal = 0.001gal and 1 gu = 0.1 milligal

• These variations can be determined by measuring the Earth's gravity field at

numerous stations along a traverse (profile), and then after doing some
correcting on the gravity data which conducted from field surveys, such as:
elevation, tidal effects, topography, latitude and instrument drift.
 Gravity Equipments
Modern Instruments capable of rapid gravity measurements are known
as gravity meters or gravimeters. Gravimeters are basically spring
balances carrying a constant mass. Variations in the weight of the
mass caused by variations in gravity cause the length of the spring to
vary and give a measure of the change in gravity. There are two types
of gravimeters: Relative and absolute. Absolute gravimeters measure the
local gravity at one absolute units, gals. Whereas, the relative one compare
the value of gravity at one point with another. They must be calibrated at a
location where the gravity is known accurately, and transported to the location
where the gravity is to be measured. They measure the ratio of the gravity at
the two points.
• A causative body represents a subsurface zone of anomalous mass
and causes a localized perturbation(‫ب‬3‫ضطرا‬3‫ )أ‬in the gravitational field
known as gravity anomaly.
• Gravity anomaly map yield the difference between the observed
gravity values and the theoretical gravity values for a region of
interest.
• It represents the goal that a geophysicist seeks, and the starting
point from which to explain the various geological phenomena found
at heterogeneous depths below the Earth's surface.
 Causes of gravity anomaly
1. Shape and size of the Earth.
2. Rotation of the Earth.
3. Change in elevation.
4. Horizontal change in density of basement rocks (crystalline rocks).
5. Horizontal change in density of sedimentary rocks (surface rocks).
6. Horizontal mass.
7. Change in topographic configuration of crystalline mass.
8. Change in topographic configuration of surface rocks.
9. Response of earth to tidal forces.
 Gravity Corrections
1) Free-air correction: The measuring point is not exactly at zero
elevation (sea-level). For instance, if the point is above sea-level, the
measured gravity is smaller than the actual value, and therefore
a certain among of gravity should be added to the observed value.
2) Bouguer Correction: For positive elevation, there is a rock layer
between the measuring point and sea-level, and this rock layer
causes excessive gravity that should be removed from the observed
value. For negative elevation (that is, the measuring point is below
the sea-level), a certain amount of gravity should be added to the
observed value.
 Gravity
Anomalies
High density body produces
positive gravity anomalies

Gravity anomalies = observed gravity - theoretical gravity

∆gF = gobs + CF – g Ø

The main purpose of obtaining gravity anomalies: to detect

changes in the density of underground rocks.
Theoretical gravity has several main components:
1) Change of gravity as a function of latitude (increasing toward
the poles)
 ∆gB = gobs + CF – CB + CT – gØ

Isostatic anomaly = Bouguer anomaly + Isostatic correction

Isostatic anomaly = gobs + CF – CB + CT + CIso – gØ

Final gravity anomaly (∆g) = gobs ± corrections – gØ

 No.
Stat.
(h) (m)

(gobs )
Drift corr. CD

Gravity values after CD

Latitude corr.

CL

Gravity values after CL

Free-air
Corr. (CF )

Gravity values after CF

Bouguer
Corr. (CB )
Elevation Correction

Gravity values after CB

Terrain Corr.

CT

Gravity values after CT

Isostatic Corr.
Ciso

Gravity values after Ciso