Brief Introduction to Petroleum and Gas engineering Duration Instructor

Petroleum reservoir  
Reservoir Rock properties 6 hours Mepaiyeda
Reservoir Fluid properties
Crude oil properties
     
Equation of State    
Introduction to steady and unsteady equations of State 2 hours Uguru
     
Reservoir Types and Drive Mechanism    
Undersaturated Reservoirs    
Saturated Reservoirs 3 hours Mepaiyeda
Reservoir Drive Mechanism
General Material Balance
     
Secondary Recovery Methods    
Introduction 2 hours Uguru
Waterflooding
Gas flooding
     
Immiscible Fluid Displacement    
Basic Concepts in Immiscible Fluid Displacement 4 hours Mepaiyeda
Fractional flow equations
Buckley Leverette

     
Enhanced Oil Recovery    
Overview of EOR processes    
EOR screening criteria 4 hours Uguru
Miscible Gas Injection Processes
Chemical Flooding Processes
Thermal processes
Implementation of EOR Projects
     
Reservoir Fluids 2 hours Mepaiyeda
Introduction to Reservoir Phase Behavior
     
Oil Field economics 2 hours Mepaiyeda
Revision   Mepaiyeda
Ugurus
Petroleum System
• This is a dynamic hydrocarbon system that functions in a restricted
geologic space and time scale. A petroleum system requires the timely
convergence of geologic events essential for the formation of
petroleum deposits. These include:
(1) matured source rock
(2) Hydrocarbon expulsion
(3) hydrocarbon migration
(4) hydrocarbon accumulation
(5) hydrocarbon extension.
 Reservoir Engineering
This is the application of basic scientific intelligence
  to the optimal recovery of oil and gas from
subsurface reservoirs. There are three fundamental roles of a reservoir Engineer.
A) To estimate the hydrocarbon resource volume in place. By the DPR there are four
resource volume;
(1) STOIIP Stock Tank Oil Initially In Place
(2) FGIIP Free Gas Initially In Place
(3) Solution Gas Initially In Place
(4) CIIP Condensate Initially In Place
B) To determine the recovery factor.

Note: (Recovery factor can never be 100% because of the physics of the reservoir fluid system as
wettability, Pendular forces etc). There are two types of recovery factor.
Economic Recovery Factor: This is the recovery which is governed by current economic
circumstance and, ever increasingly by environmental and ecological considerations.
Technical Recovery Factor: This is governed by the physics of the reservoir-fluid system.
C) Formulation of the optimal recovery plan for the reserves. Formulation
of a realistic time frame to optimally recover the hydrocarbon.

WHAT IS A PETROLEUM RESERVOIR:

A Petroleum Reservoir is a porous and permeable subsurface rock containing
hydrocarbon in commercial quantity and is characterised by a single pressure
system. Many hydrocarbons reservoirs are hydraulically connected to various
volumes of water bearing rock called aquifers. Many reservoirs are located in
large sedimentary basins and share a common acquifer. There are five elements
of a Petroleum Reservoir;
(1) Matrix i.e housing (rock)
(2) Pore Volume/ Porosity
(3) Permeability
(4) Saturation (commercial quantity)
(5) Trap (pressure system)
Reservoir Pressure and Temperature

Reservoir pressure is a measurement of the fluid pressure in a

porous reservoir. The fluid pressure is a fraction of the
overburden pressure that is supported by the fluid system. The
other portion is supported by the rock and generates the in-situ
rock stress. The overburden pressure is supported by the fluid
system. The other portion is supported by the rock and
generates the in-situ rock stress. The overburden pressure is
created by the weight of the rocks composing the lithostatic
column. Hence the difference between the overburden pressure
and vertical rock stress can approximate the pore pressure.
Overburden Pressure = Fluid Pressure + Grain pressure----(1)
Geothermal Gradient

Reservoir temperature is governed primarily by the reservoir

proximity to the earth’s mantle and by relative heat exchange
capacities and thermal conductivities of the formation forming
the lithostatic sequence that includes the reservoir. Geothermal
gradient varies from basin to basin as a result of heat exchange
processes but within a specific area, the variations are small. In
most hydrocarbon producing areas, the gradient is usually in the
range of 0.6 - 1.60F per 1000ft of depth increase. Thin crust areas
have averages of 40F while other local temperature depths have
as high as 100F per 100ft of depth increase. These are areas of
major faults and tectonic movements in the earth’s crust in
geothermal areas.
RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES
Each reservoir is composed of a unique combination of
geometric form, geological rock properties, fluid
characteristics, and primary drive mechanism. In this lesson,
we shall be considering the reservoir rock characteristics.
Knowledge of the physical properties of the rock and the
existing interaction between the hydrocarbon system and
formation is essential in understanding and evaluating
performance of a given reservoir. Rock properties are
determined by performing lab analyses on the cores from the
reservoir. The two main core analysis test that are performed
on core samples regarding the physical properties of the
reservoir rocks are;
Routine core analysis Test: Porosity, permeability, saturation tests.
Special Test: Overburden Pressure, Capillary pressure, Relative permeability,
wettability, surface and interfacial tension tests.

These properties are essential for R.E calculations as they affect both the
quantity, distribution of hydrocarbon when combined with fluid properties
and control the flow of the existing phases (gas, oil, water) within the
reservoir.
The reservoir properties include;
Porosity
Permeability
Fluid saturation
Isothermal compressibility
POROSITY

Quantitatively, the porosity is the ratio of the pore volume to the total
volume (bulk volume).
This important rock property is determined mathematically by the
following generalized
relationship: 
where Ф = porosity expressed in (%)
As the sediments were deposited and the rocks were being formed
during past geological times, some void spaces that developed became
isolated from the other void spaces by excessive cementation. Thus,
many of the void spaces are interconnected while some of the pore
spaces are completely isolated.
This leads to two distinct types of porosity, namely:
Total/Absolute porosity
Effective porosity

Total/Absolute porosity
This is the ratio of the total pore space in the rock to that of the bulk volume. A
rock may have considerable absolute porosity and yet have no conductivity to
fluid for lack of pore interconnection. Total porosity includes both isolated and
interconnected pores which produce fluids.
The absolute porosity is generally expressed mathematically by the following
relationships
Effective Porosity: This is the percentage of the interconnected pore spaces
with respect to the bulk volume that allows the passage of fluids through the
sample. It should be noted that effective porosity is of interest to the petroleum
engineer because of its use in determining the original hydrocarbon in place.
ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSIBILITY

Isothermal compressibility is the change in volume that a substance undergoes

during a change in pressure while the temperature is held constant. When the
internal fluid pressure within the pore space within the pore spaces of a rock
which is subjected to a constant external (rock or overburden) pressure is reduced,
the bulk volume of the rock decreases while the volume of the solid rock material
(e.g sand grains of a sandstone) increases.
The isothermal compressibility for a substance is given by the following equation:

 
The mechanism of primary oil recovery is governed by expansion of fluids in the
reservoir as a result of pressure drop during production. This is described by the
equation of isothermal compressibility.
• Note: The –ve sign convert Co into +ve number. Compressibility is
higher at lower pressures.
    
Oil Production = dv total = dv gas + dv oil + dv water
dv gas = expansion of gas cap due to pressure drop. Occur when
reservoir is in contact with gas cap.
dv oil = expansion of oil and its dissolve gas.
dv water = connate water expansion from adjacent aquifer as pressure
drops.
The isothermal compressibility is commonly applied in the
majority of reservoir engineering calculations because it is
considered a reasonable approximation that as fluids are produced,
and so remove heat from the reservoir by convention the cap and
base rocks that are assembled to act as heat sources of infinite
extent immediately replace this heat by conduction so that the
reservoir tempt remains the constant. Therefore compressibility is
referred to as isothermal compressibility.
The negative sign convention is used because dv/dp is –ve
whereas dv = cvdP is = +ve.
 Note: Cg = the coefficient of isothermal compressibility of gas.
Z = gas compressibility factor or gas deviation factor
 RESERVOIR FLUID PROPERTIES
To understand and predict the volumetric behaviour of oil and gas reservoirs as
a function of pressure, knowledge of the physical properties of reservoir fluids
must be gained. These fluid properties are usually determined by
Laboratory experiments: Experiments are performed on samples of actual
reservoir fluids. In the absence of experimentally measured properties, it is
necessary for the petroleum engineer to determine the properties from;

Empirically derived correlations. These are well-established physical property

correlations for reservoir fluids.
The physical properties of the following reservoir fluids will be
considered
a) Natural gases
b) Crude oil systems
c) Reservoir water systems
 GAS PROPERTIES
A gas is defined as a homogeneous fluid of low viscosity and density
that has no definite volume but expands to completely fill the vessel in
which it is placed. Generally, the natural gas is a mixture of
hydrocarbon and nonhydrocarbon gases. The hydrocarbon gases that are
normally found in a natural gas are methanes, ethanes, propanes,
butanes, pentanes, and small amounts of hexanes and heavier. The non-
hydrocarbon gases (i.e., impurities) include carbon dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide, and nitrogen. Knowledge of pressure-volume-temperature
(PVT) relationships and other physical and chemical properties of gases
is essential for solving problems in natural gas reservoir engineering.
These properties include:
Apparent molecular weight, Ma
Specific gravity, γg
Compressibility factor, z
Density, ρg
Specific volume, v
Isothermal gas compressibility coefficient, Cg
Gas formation volume factor, Bg
Gas expansion factor, Eg
Viscosity, μg
•Density
  of a Perfect Gas
Density is defined as the mass of the gas per unit volume. It is the
reciprocal of the specific volume. From

where substituting into equation (1) gives

Specific Gravity of Gas

This is the ratio of gas density to that of air. Both densities are taken at
the same temperature and pressure. Specific gravity is given by ɣg.
ɣ =
Standard Volume

•The
  volume of gas varies substantially with P and T. Defining the
condition at which gas volume is reported is necessary especially in the
case of gas and many other calculations involving gases. It is convenient
to measure the volume occupied by 1 pound mole of gas at 14.7Psia
and 600F. Standard volume is defined as the volume of gas occupied by
one pound mole of gas at standard conditions. At standard conditions,
ideal gas behaviour is assumed and the volume is
 
V = 379ft3 where n=1
•Specific
  Volume
This is the volume occupied by a unit mass of gas. For an ideal gas.
Specific volume is inverse of density.
PV=nRT
 
PV = PM = ρRT
ρ= ; ;
•Gas
  Mixture
The Engineer seldom deals with gases that consist of only one
component. The composition of gas mixture are commonly expressed
as weight%, volume % and mole %.

For an ith component

•Relationship
  between mol% and vol%
If each gas in a mixture obey’s Avogadro’s law, the volume of the ith
component will be proportional to the number of moles of the ith
component.

.......................................................(9)
................................(10)
Classwork
Assuming a gas mixture whose components are given below. Find the
mol%.

Compound Wt% Wt /100lb No of moles= m/M Mol% = ni/nt *100

CH4 60.00 = 60

C2H6 20.00      
C3H8 10.00      
C4H10 10.00      
  100.00   4.816  
Apparent Molecular Weight

•This
  is the weight of 379cuft of gas mixture at standard conditions of
600F and 14.7psia. The concept of AMW is very useful since it permits
the general gas law to be applied to the gas mixtures, provided that the
mole weight in the gas is replaced by the apparent molecular weight. If
yi represent the mole fraction of the ith component in a gas mixture.
The apparent molecular weight is defined mathematically by the
following equation.

..............................(11)