Electromagnetic Wave Propagation

Electronic Communications Systems

Fundamentals Through Advanced
By: Wayne Tomasi
Electronic Communications
By: Blake
Electromagnetic Wave Propagation
• In electronic communications systems, very often
it is impractical or impossible to interconnect two
pieces of equipment with a physical facility such
as metallic wire or cable. Therefore, free space or
the earth’s atmosphere is often used as a
transmission medium (RF propagation). Radio
waves are electromagnetic waves and, like light,
propagate through free space in a straight line
with a velocity of 300,000,000 meters per second.
Electromagnetic (EM) Wave
 EM Wave Polarization
• Electromagnetic wave contains an electric
field and magnetic field at 90⁰ to each other.
The polarization of a plane electromagnetic
wave is simply the orientation of the electric
field vector in respect to the surface of the
earth, i.e. looking at the horizon.
 EM Wave Polarization
1. Linear Polarization: if the polarization is unvarying.
Horizontal Polarization:
Vertical Polarization:
2. Circular Polarization: the polarization vector rotates 360⁰
as the wave moves one wavelength through space and
the field strength is equal at all angles of polarization.
Right handed:
Left handed:
3. Elliptical Polarization: if the field strength varies with
changes in polarization
 Rays and Wavefront
• Rays are used to show the relative direction of
electromagnetic wave propagation. A
wavefront shows a surface of constant phase
of a wave. It is formed when points of equal
phase on rays propagated from the same
source are joined together
 Rays and Wavefront

wavefront

Ra
Rb Direction of
Source
Rc propagation

Rd
 Rays and Wavefront
• A point source is a single location from which
rays propagate equally in all directions
(isotropic radiator) and the wavefront
generated is simply a sphere (spherical
wavefront).
 Rays and Wavefront

Wavefront 2
Point
Radius R2
source
Wavefront 1

Radius, R1

Wavefront from a point source

 Power Density and Field Intensity
• Electromagnetic waves represent the flow of
energy in the direction of propagation. The
rate at which energy passes through a given
surface area in free space is called power
density and it is energy per unit time per unit
of area. Field intensity is the intensity of the
electric and magnetic field of an
electromagnetic wave propagating in free
space.
 Power Density and Field Intensity

PD  E FI M FI

Where:
= Power
PD Density (W/m2)
= rms
EFI electric field intensity (volts/meter)
= rms
M FI magnetic field intensity (ampere-turns/meter)
 
 Power Density and Field Intensity
p
•The power density at any point ( D ( 2)
) on the surface of a
spherical wavefront is;

Prad
pD  2  
4R22
For isotropic source
(omnidirectional source)

Where:
=Pradtotal power radiated (watts)
4=Rarea
2
2 of the sphere
=Rradius
2 of the sphere (which is equal to the distance from any point on
the surface of the sphere to the source)
 
 Power Density and Field Intensity
• The power density at any point on inner sphere is,

Prad
pD (1) 
4R12

• Since the area of the sphere increases in direct proportion to

the distance from the source squared, the power density is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the
source. This relationship is called the inverse law.
2
PD ( 2 )  R1 
  
PD (1)  R2 
 Power Density and Field Intensity
• Power density for anisotropic or directional
source.
Pin GTX
P
4 R22
For anisotropic source
(directional source)
Where:
=Pintotal power radiated (watts) = gain GTXof the tx antenna source
4= Rarea
2
2
of the sphere
= Rradius
2 of the sphere (which is equal to the distance from any point on the
surface of the sphere to the source)
 
 Zo of Free Space
• The electric and magnetic field intensities of an
electromagnetic wave in free space are related
through the characteristic impedance(Zo) of free space

0 1.26  10 6
Zo    377 
0 8.85  10 12

Where: Zo
0 impedance of free space (ohms)
= characteristic
0
= magnetic permeability of free space (1.26 x 10-6 H/m)
= electric permittivity of free space (8.85 x 10-12 F/m)
 Wave Attenuation and Absorption
• Free space is a vacuum, so no loss of energy occurs
as a wave propagates through free space, however,
they spread out, resulting in reduction in power
density. This is called attenuation and occurs in free
space as well as the earth’s atmosphere. Since the
earth’s atmosphere is not a vacuum, it contains
particles that can absorb electromagnetic energy.
This type of reduction of power is called absorption
loss and does not occur in waves travelling outside
our atmosphere.
 Wave Attenuation and Absorption
• Wave attenuation (γa) is due to spherical
spreading of wave , thus it is also called space
attenuation of the wave.

PD  1 
 a  10 log PD  2 
 Optical Properties of Radio Waves
• In earth’s atmosphere, ray wavefront
propagation may be altered from free space
behavior by optical effects such as refraction,
reflection, diffraction and interference.
 Refraction
1. Refraction: (Bending) Electromagnetic
refraction is the change in direction of a ray
as it passes obliquely from one medium to
another with different velocities of
propagation
 Refraction
normal

Incident rays
Incident
wavefront

1
Medium1 – less dense
Media
Medium2 – more dense Interface

Refracted
wavefront Unrefracted
rays
Refracted rays 2
 Refraction
• Whenever a ray passes from less dense to a more
dense medium, it is effectively bent toward the
1
normal. The angle of incidence ( ) is the angle
formed between the incident wave and the 2 normal
while the angle of refraction ( ) is the angle formed
between the refracted wave and the normal. The
amount of bending of the ray depends on the
refractive index (or index of refraction) which is the
ratio of the velocity of light ray in free space to the
velocity of light ray in a given material
 Refraction
• Refractive index

c
n
v

Where:
= refractive
n index (unitless)
= speed
c of light in free space (3x108 m/s)
= speed
v of light in a given material (m/s)
 Refraction
A transition from one medium to another often results
in the bending or refraction of radio waves (or light
rays). The angles involved are given by Snell’s Law.

n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2
where:
= index of refraction in the first medium
n1
= index of refraction in the second medium
n2
= angle of incidence
1
= angle of refraction
2
 Refraction
Also, since the refractive index of a medium is equal
r
to the square root of its dielectric constant; n ,then;

sin 1 r2

sin  2  r1
Where:
= dielectric constant of medium 1
= dielectric
 constant of medium 2
r1

r2
 Refraction
Original Refracted Unrefracted
wavefront wavefronts wavefront

Less dense

More dense

Wavefront Refraction in a gradient medium

 Reflection
2. Reflection: (Bouncing) Electromagnetic
reflection occurs when an incident wave
strikes a boundary of two media and some or
all of the incident power does not enter the
second material
1. Specular (mirrorlike) reflection: reflection from a
perfectly smooth surface
2. Diffuse reflection: reflection from irregular or
rough surfaces
 Reflection

NORMAL
Incident wavefront Reflected wavefront

Ei
Er
i r

Medium 1

Medium 2
 Reflection
• The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection(   ). However, the reflected voltage
i r

field intensity is less than the incident voltage

field intensity. The ratio of the reflected to the
incident voltage intensities is called reflection
coefficient (  ).
 
 Reflection
• Reflection Coefficient

E r e j r E r j   r  i 
   e
Ei e ji Ei

Where: 
= reflection coefficient (unitless)
= 1 for a perfect 
conductor
i
= incident phase(degrees)
r
= reflected phaseE(degrees)
i
= incident voltageEintensity
r (volts)
= reflected voltage intensity (volts)
 Reflection
Reflections from a semi-rough surfaces cause a
combination of diffuse and specular reflection and is
subject to the “Rayleigh criterion” which states that a
semi-rough surface will reflect as if it were a smooth
surface whenever the cosine of the angle of incidence is

greater than . 8d

cos  i  
8d
Where: 
= wavelength of
d incident wave
= depth of surface irregularity
 Reflection
• Reflection from semi-rough surface

Specularly
reflected ray
θi

Diffuse reflections
 Diffraction
3. Diffraction: (Scattering) It is defined as the
redistribution of energy within a wavefront when it
passes near the edge of an opaque object. It is a
phenomenon that allows light or radio waves to
propagate (peek) around corners. It is subject to
(Christian) Huygen’s Principle which states that
every point on a given wavefront can be
considered as secondary point source of
electromagnetic wave from which other secondary
waves are radiated outward
Diffraction
 Interference
• Interference: (Colliding) Radio wave interference
occurs when two or more electromagnetic
waves combine in such a way that system
performance is degraded, e.g. when two waves
that left one source and travelled different paths
arrive at a point. If the two signals arrive at a
point with different phase, cancellation occurs, if
the two signals arrive with the same phase,
reinforcement occurs.
 Interference
Reflection, refraction, or diffraction changes
the direction of wave B.

Direct wave (Wave A)

Source

Reflected Wave (Wave B)

 Terrestrial Propagation
Electromagnetic waves traveling within the earth’s
atmosphere are called terrestrial microwaves, and
communications between two or more points on
earth is called terrestrial communications.

1. Ground wave propagation: also called surface waves, are

electromagnetic waves that travel along the surface of the earth.
Ground waves must be vertically polarized because a horizontally
polarized wave will be short circuited by the ground. Ground waves
are generally limited to 2MHz.
 Terrestrial Propagation
• Disdvantages of groundwave propagation:
1. Groundwaves require high transmission
power
2. Groundwaves are limited to very low, low and
medium frequencies requiring large antennas
3. Groundwaves vary considerably with surface
material
 Terrestrial Propagation
• Advantages of groundwave propagation:
1. Given enough transmit power, groundwaves
can be used to communicate between two
locations in the world.
2. Groundwaves are relatively unaffected by
changing atmospheric conditions.
 Terrestrial Propagation
Surface Relative Conductivity

Sea water Good

Flat loamy soil Fair

Large bodies of freshwater Fair

Rocky terrain Poor

Desert Poor

Jungle Unusable
 Terrestrial Propagation
2. Space wave propagation: electromagnetic waves that travel
in the lower few miles of earth’s atmosphere.
a.) Direct wave (commonly called line-of-sight (LOS)
transmission
b.) Ground reflected wave

3. Sky-wave propagation: electromagnetic waves that are

directed above the horizon level. They refract from the
ionized layers of the atmosphere.
 Terrestrial Propagation
Earth’s upper
atmosphere
Sky
wave

Direct LOS (space wave)

Ground
ht hr
reflected
wave
Surface wave

d = distance between tx and rx

 Space Wave Propagation

D
dt dr

ht hr
 Space Wave Propagation
For space wave propagation, the distance between
the two antennas (transmitter and receiver) is;

D  2ht  2hr

Where: D
= distance
ht between transmitter and receiver (miles)
= height of
hr transmitter antenna (feet)
= height of receiver antenna (feet)
 
 Layers of the Ionosphere
The ionosphere is the region of the earth’s
upper atmosphere where some of the
molecules are ionized by solar radiation and it
is approximately 50 km to 400 km above
earth’s surface.
400
LAYERS OF THE IONOSPHERE
F2 (June)

F2 (Equinox)
300

F1 + F2 F1 + F2
F2 (December)

F1
200

F Layer
137

E Layer
100

(daytime only)
D Layer
50

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Local time (hours of the day)

 LAYERS OF THE IONOSPHERE
1. D Layer : between 30 to 60 km above the earth’s surface and
receives little ionization from the sun, thus it has little effect
on the direction of propagation of radio waves.
2. E Layer : approximately 100 km to 140 km above the earth’s
surface. This is also referred to as the Kennely-Heaviside
layer after the two scientists who discovered it. Like the D
layer, E layer virtually disappear at night when no solar
radiation is received.
3. F Layer: actually made up of two layers, F1 and F2 ;
F1 Layer – 140 km to 250 km
F2 Layer – 250 km to 350 km
F1 and F2 layers combine to form a single layer during the night
 PROPAGATION TERMS
• Critical Frequency (fc) – the highest frequency
that can be propagated directly upward and
still be returned to earth by the ionosphere.
Ionospheric sounding is used to determine the
critical frequency where a signal is sent
straight up and gradually increased in
frequency.
 PROPAGATION TERMS
• Critical Angle – the maximum angle at which a
signal is propagated and still be refracted back
by the ionosphere
• Virtual Height – is the height above the earth’s
surface from which the refracted wave
appears to have been reflected
 PROPAGATION TERMS
• Maximum Usable Frequency(MUF) – the
highest frequency that can be used for sky-
wave propagation between two specific points
on the Earth’s surface.
critical frequency
MUF 
cos 

NOTE: Due to general instability of the ionosphere, the highest frequency used between
two points is often selected lower than MUF, about 85%. This is sometimes called
Optimum Working Frequency.
 PROPAGATION TERMS
• Skip Distance – is the minimum distance from a
transmit antenna that a sky wave of a given
frequency (which must be less than the MUF)
will be returned to earth.
• Duct Propagation (atmospheric ducting) – a
condition that occurs when the density of the
lower atmosphere is such that electromagnetic
waves are trapped between it and the Earth’s
surface.
 PROPAGATION TERMS
Upper atmosphere

Warmer air
Duct effect Trapped waves

Cooler air
 PROPAGATION TERMS
ionosphere

Virtual
height

actual
height

Skip Distance
Critical
angle
Earth’s Surface
 Free Space Path Loss
• Free space path loss (FSL) is often defined as
the loss incurred by an electromagnetic wave
as it propagates in a straight line through a
vacuum with no absorption or reflection of
energy from nearby objects.
FSLdB  32.4  20 log f MH z  20 log Dkm

f = frequency in MHz
D = distance in kilometers
 Fade Margin
• Fade margin is the attenuation allowance so
that anticipated fading will still keep the signal
above specified minimum RF input
 Fade Margin

FM dB  30 log Dkm  10 log  6 ABfGHz   10 log 1  R   70

Where
FM = fade margin (dB)
D = distance (km)
f = frequency (GHz)
R = reliability expressed as a decimal (i.e. 99.99% = 0.9999 reliability)
1- R = reliability objective for a one-way 400 km route
A = roughness factor
= 4 over water or a very smooth terrain
= 1 over an average terrain
= 0.25 over a very rough, mountainous terrain
B = factor to convert a worst-month probability to an annual probability
= 1 to convert an annual availability to a worst-month basis
= 0.5 for hot humid areas
= 0.25 for average inland areas
0.125 for very dry or mountainous areas