Chapter 2

Series and Sequence

1. Limit of a sequence
2. Convergence of a sequence
3. Power series
4. Tests for convergence
5. special Series Page 1
 Definition: A sequence is…

(a) an ordered list of objects.

1 1 1 1
1, , , , ...
2 4 8 16
(b) A function whose domain is a set of
positive integers.
Domain: 1, 2, 3, 4, …,n…

Range a1, a2, a3, a4, … an…

{(1, 1), (2, ½), (3, ¼), (4, 1/8) ….}
Page 2
 Finding patterns
Describe a pattern for each sequence.
Write a formula for the nth term
1 1 1 1 1
1, , , , ... n1
2 4 8 16 2
1 1 1 1 1
1, , , , ...
2 6 24 120 n!
1 4 9 16 25
, , , , ... n2
4 9 16 25 36 ( n  1) 2

Page 3
Theorems
Theoremsfor limits.
Limit
for Theorems
limits.
If the lim an exist, lim bn , and c is constant, then
n  n 

the following are true.

Limit of a Sum lim( an  bn )  lim an  lim bn
n  n  n 

Limit of a Difference lim( an  bn )  lim an  lim bn

n  n  n 

Limit of a Product lim an bn  lim an lim bn

n  n  n 

an lim an
Limit of a Quotient lim  n  , where lim bn  0
n  b lim bn n 
n
n 

Limit of a Constant lim cn  c, where cn  c for each n

n 
Page 4
 Example 1: Find the limit of lim 3n  6
n  n
3n 6
lim  just wrote it as a sum of two fractions
n  n n
When there is only
3n 6 one term in the
lim  lim use Limit of a Sum Thm denominator, split
n  n n  n
the fraction

3  0 Limit of a constant, n only in denominator = 0

Therefore, the limit is
3

Page 5
Example 2:Find the limit of lim n 2
 3n  4
n  n2  1
n 2 3n 4
2
 2  2
lim n 2 n n divided every term by n 2
n  n 1

n2 n2 When there is
3 4 more than one
1  2
n n term divide
lim simplified
n  1
1 2 everything by the
n highest degree
3 4
lim1  lim  lim 2
n  n  n n  n

1
use Limit Theorems Therefore,
lim1  lim 2 the limit is 1
n  n  n

1 0  0
Limit of a constant, n only in denominator =
1 0
Page 6
 Not all sequences have a limit:
 If the terms do not approach a limit
 If they get big (linear equations)
Example 3: Find the limit
4n 2  6 4n 2 6
lim  lim  lim
n  3n n  3n n  3n

4n 2
lim  lim
n  3 n  n

This will get larger and This limit is zero

larger never approaching a
limit
Therefore, the limit “DOES NOT EXIST”

Page 7
 Write the first 5 terms for n 1
an 
n
1 2 3 4 n 1
0, , , , ... ...
2 3 4 5 n
On a number line As a function

The terms in this sequence get closer and

closer to 1. The sequence CONVERGES to 1.
Page 8
 Write the first 5 terms (1) n 1  n  1
an 
n
1 2 3 4 n 1
0,  , ,  , .    ... ...
2 3 4 5 n

The terms in this sequence do not get close to

Any single value. The sequence Diverges
Page 9
 Write the terms for an = 3
The terms are 3, 3, 3, …3

The sequence converges to 3.

Page 10
y= L is a horizontal asymptote when
sequence converges to L.

Page 11
A sequence that diverges

an 
(1) n 1
 n  1
n

Page 12
 Sequences
Write the first 5 terms of the sequence.
Does the sequence converge? If so, find the
value.
(1) n 1 1 1 1 1 (1) n 1
an  1,  , ,  , lim n  0
2n  1 3 5 7 9 2n  1

The sequence converges to 0.

n 1  1 1 2 3 4 n 1
an  (1)  1   0,  ,  ,  , lim n  (1) 1   does not exist
 n  2 3 4 5  n

The sequence diverges.

Page 13
Conditions for Convergence of a Sequences

A necessary condition for

convergence:
Limit as n goes to infinity for nth term
in sequence
nth term testis 0.
for divergence:
If the limit as n goes to infinity for the
nth term is not 0, the series DIVERGES!
Conditions for Convergence of a Sequences

A sequence in which each term is less than or

equal to the one before it is called a
monotonic non-increasing sequence. If each
term is greater than or equal to the one before
it, it is called monotonic non-decreasing.

A monotonic sequence that is bounded

Is convergent.
 Infinite Series

1 1 1 1 1
 2n    
2 4 8 16
 ...
n 1
Represents the sum of the terms in a sequence.
We want to know if the series converges to
a single value i.e. there is a finite sum.

1 1  1  1  1  ...
n 1

The series diverges because sn = n. Note

that the Sequence {1} converges.
Page 16
 
1
 n(n  1)
n 1


1 1 1 1 1 1
 n(n  1)  2  6  12  20  30  ...
n 1

Page 17
 
Partial sums of 1 1 1 1 1 1
 n(n  1)  2  6  12  20  30  ...
1 1 n 1
s1  
1 2 2
1 1 2
s2   
1 2 2  3 3
1 1 1 3
s3    
1 2 2  3 3  4 4
and
1 1 1 1 n
sn     ... 
1 2 2  3 3  4 n(n  1) n  1

If the sequence of partial sums

converges, the series converges
1 2 3 4 5 n
, , , , ... ...
2 3 4 5 6 n  1 Converges to 1 so series converges.
Page 18
 
Finding sums 1
 n(n  1)
n 1
Can use partial fractions to rewrite

1
 n(n  1) 
n 1

1 1  1 1 1 1 1 1 1
  n  n  1   (1  2 )  ( 2  3 )  ( 3  4 )  ... n  n  1  ...
n 1


1 1
 n(n  1)  limn (1  n  1)  1
n 1

Page 19
T
. he partial sums of the series 
1
 n(n  1)
Limit n 1

Page 20
 Geometric Series

1 1 1 1 1
 2n    
2 4 8 16
 ...
n 1

Each term is obtained from the preceding

number by multiplying by the same number r.

Find r (the common ratio)

1 1 1 1
    ...
5 25 125 625
2 4 8 16
    ...
3 3 3 3
Page 21

 ar n 1
Is a Geometric Series
n 1 Where a = first term and r=common ratio
Write using series notation
 n 1
11
1 1 1
  
1
 ...  2  2 
2 4 8 16 n 1

 n 1
3 12 48 192 3 4 
  
5 25 125 625
 ...  5   5 
n 1


2 4 8 16 2 n 1
  
3 3 3 3
 ...  3  2
n 1
Page 22
 The sum of a geometric series
2 3 n 1
sn  a  ar  ar  ar  ...ar Sum of n terms
2 3 n
rsn  ar  ar  ar  ...ar Multiply each term by r
n
sn  rsn  a  ar subtract
n n
a  ar a (1  r )
sn   ,r  1
1 r 1 r
n
if | r | 1, r  0 as n  .
a
Geometric series converges to sn  1  r , | r | 1
If r>1 the geometric series diverges.
Page 23
 Find the sum of a Geometric Series
Where a = first term and r=common ratio

a
 ar n 1

1 r
, | r | 1
n 1
 n 1 1
11
 2  2  2 1
1
n 1 1 3
 n 1 2
3 4  5 31
 5   5  1
4 9 3
n 1 5

2 n 1
 3  2 The series diverges.
n 1
Page 24
 Repeating decimals-Geometric Series
8 8 8 8
0.080808  2
 4
 6
 8
 ...
10 10 10 10

8 1
a 2
and r 
10 102
  n 1
8  1 
 ar n 1
 2  2 
n 1 n 1 10  10 

8

a 2 8
 ar n 1
  10
1 r 1 1

99
n 1
102

The repeating decimal is equivalent to 8/99.

Page 25
 The sum of a series:
The sum S of an infinite geometric series for which
a1
r  1 is given by S=
1 r

Example 4:
Find the sum of the series 21 – 3 + 3/7 - …
2nd 3 1 S
21

147
r   1 8
1st 21 7 1  ( )
7
Example 5:
write 0.762 as a fraction
• Write it as a series…
762 762 762
   ...
1000 1, 000, 000 1, 000, 000, 000

a1 762 1
S , a1  r
1 r 1000 1000

762
1000  762 1000 762 254
  
1 1000 999 999 333
1
1000
 Series known to converge or diverge
1. A geometric series with | r | <1 converges
2. A repeating decimal converges
3. Telescoping series converge

A series of non-negative terms

converges. If its partial sums are bounded
from above.
Page 28
 Convergence or Divergence?
 
n  10 1 1
 10n  1 n  n2
n 1 n 1


 4
  1.075 
n
 2n
n 1 n 1

Page 29
 The Integral Test
Let {an} be a sequence of positive terms.

Suppose that an = f(n) where f is a continuous

positive, decreasing function of x for all xN.
Then the series and the corresponding
integral shown both converge or both
diverge. f(n) f(x)
 
 an  f ( x)dx
n N
N
Page 30
The series and the integral both converge or both diverge

Area in rectangle corresponds to term in sequence

Exact area under curve is between

If area under curve is finite, so is area in rectangles
If area under curve is infinite, so is area in rectangles

Page 31
 The Integral Test-Summary
If  an  is a positive sequence and an  f  n  where
f  n  is a continuous, positive, decreasing function, then:


 an
n N
And N

f  x  dx both converge or both diverge.

1. f(x) positive √
2. f(x) continuous √
3. f(x) decreasing √ Page 32
Problems with the Integral Test:

•You must show that f is positive,

continuous and decreasing for

•You must be able to find the anti-

derivative.

Page 33
Example 1 
1
Does n
n 1 n converge?

3
 1 b  1 b

1
x x
dx  lim  x
b  1
2
dx  lim
b  2 x

2
1

 2 
 lim   2
b 
 b 
Since the integral converges,
the series must converge.
(but not necessarily to 2.)
Page 34
 Using the Integral test: Example 2

n
 n2  1 an  f (n) 
n f ( x) 
x
n 1 2
n 1 x2  1

 b
x 1 2x  
b
 x2  1 b   2
2
dx  lim dx  lim b   ln( x  1)
2 x  1 1
1 1
2
limb (ln(b  1)  ln 2)  
The improper integral diverges

Thus the series diverges

Page 35
 Using the Integral test

1 1
 n2  1 an  f ( n)  2
1 f ( x) 
x2  1
n 1 n 1

 b
1 1
 x2  1 dx  limb  x2  1 dx  limb  arctan x
b
1
1 1
  
limb (arctan b  arctan1)   
2 4 4

The improper integral converges

Thus the series converges

Page 36
 Harmonic series and p-series

1
 np Is called a p-series
n 1

A p-series converges if p > 1 and

diverges. If p < 1 or p = 1.

1 1 1 1 1 1
n  1    
2 3 4 5
 ....
n
 ....
n 1

Is called the harmonic series and it

diverges since p =1.
Page 37
Identify which series converge and which diverge.
 
1 1
 1
n
n 1 3 n 1
n

 
1 100
 n
 n2
n 1 n 1

  n 1
1 3 4 
   5   5 
n 1 n 1
n3

Page 38
 Direct Comparison test

Let  an be a series with no negative terms
n 1
 
 an Converges if there is a series  cn
n 1 n 1

Where the terms of an are less than or

equal to the terms of cn for all n>N.
 
 an Diverges if there is a series  dn
n 1 n 1

Where the terms of an are greater than

or equal to the terms of dn for all n>N.
Page 39
 Limit Comparison test
Limit Comparison test
an
lim x   c, 0c
bn  
Then the following series  an and  bn
n 1 n 1
both converge or both diverge:

an  
lim x 
bn
0 and Amd bn Converges then an Converges.
n 1 n 1

an  
lim x 
bn

and  bn  an
Diverges thenn 1 Diverges.
n 1

Page 40
 Limit Comparison Test-Summary
Ifan  0 and bn  0 for alln  N (N a positive integer)

Iflim
an
n  b
c 0c 
, then both an and bn 
n converge or both diverge.
an
If lim
n  b
0, then an converges if b n converges.
n

If lim
an
n  b
, then an diverges if bn diverges.
n

Page 41
 3 5 7 9 
2n  1
Example 1:       
n 1  n  1
2
4 9 16 25

When n is large, the function behaves like: 2n 2

2

n n
2n  1
2 1 an  n  1 2
 2n  1 n
 lim  lim  lim
n n n  b
n
n  1 n  
n  1
2

n
harmonic series
2n 2  n
 lim 2 1
Since 
n  n  2n  1
n diverges, the
series diverges.
Page 42
 
1 1 1 1 1
Example 2:        n
1 3 7 15 n 1 2  1

1
When n is large, the function behaves like:
2n
1
n
an 2
 lim 2  1  lim n
n
lim 1
n  b
n
n  1 n 2  1
n
2

geometric series
1
Since  n converges, the series converges.
2
Page 43
 Convergence or divergence?

1
 2  3n
n 1


1
 3n  2
n 1


n
 n2  1
n 1

Page 44
 Alternating Series
A series in which terms alternate in sign
 
 (1) an
n
or  (  1) n 1
an
n 1 n 1


1 1 1 1 1
 (1) n 1
2n
   
2 4 8 16
 ...
n 1

1 1 1 1
 (1) n   1  2  3  4  ...
n

n 1

Page 45

Alternating Series Test
 ( 1) n 1
an  a1  a2  a3  a4  ...
n 1

Converges if:

an is always positive.

an an+1 for all n  N for some integer N.

an0 as n goes to infinite.

If any one of the conditions is not met, the
Series diverges.
Page 46
 The signs of the terms alternate.
Alternating Series Test
If the absolute values of the terms
approach zero, then an alternating
series will always converge!

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
  1
n 1
n 1
       
n 1 2 3 4 5 6
This series converges (by the Alternating Series Test.)

This series is convergent, but not absolutely convergent.

Therefore we say that it is conditionally convergent.

Page 47
Since each term of a convergent alternating
series moves the partial sum a little closer to
the limit:
Alternating Series Estimation Theorem

For a convergent alternating series, the

truncation error is less than the first missing
term, and is the same sign as that term.

This is a good tool to remember, because it

is easier than the LaGrange Error Bound.

Page 48
Example:
Approximate the sum of the following
convergent , alternating series by
evaluating the first 3 partial sums.

n 1  1
 (1)  
 n! 
n 1
Estimate the error.
Page 49
 
n 1 1
 (1)  
 n! 
S1  1 n 1
1
S2  1   .50000
2
1 1
S3  1    .66667
2 6
1 1
Error < {a4 }    .0417
4! 24 Page 50
 Absolute and Conditional Convergence

• A series isan absolutely convergent if the
n N

corresponding series of absolute values converges.
 an
n N

• A series that converges but does not converge absolutely,

converges conditionally.

• Every absolutely convergent series converges. (Converse is

false!!!)

Page 51
Is the given series convergent or divergent? If it
is convergent, is it absolutely convergent or
conditionally convergent?

 n ( n 1) / 2  n
( 1) ( 1)
a)  3 n b)  ln( n  1)
n 1 n 1

n 1  n

( 1) ( n  1) ( 1)
c)  n d)  n
n 1 n 1

Page 52
a) Is the given series convergent or divergent?
If it is convergent, its it absolutely convergent
or conditionally convergent?
 n ( n 1) / 2
( 1) 1 1 1 1
 3 n
   
3 9 27 81
 ...
n 1

This is not an alternating series, but since

 n ( n 1) / 2 
( 1) 1
 3 n
  3n
n 1 n 1

Is a convergent geometric series, then the

given series is absolutely convergent.
Page 53
b) Is the given series convergent or divergent?
If it is convergent, its it absolutely convergent
or conditionally convergent?
 n
( 1) 1 1 1
 ln(n  1)   ln 2  ln 3  ln 4  ......
n 1

Converges by the Alternating series test.

 n
( 1) 1 1 1
 ln( n  1)
  
ln 2 ln 3 ln 4
 ......
n 1

Diverges with direct comparison with the harmonic

Series. The given series is conditionally convergent.
Page 54
c) Is the given series convergent or divergent?
If it is convergent, its it absolutely convergent
or conditionally convergent?

 n 1
( 1) ( n  1) 2 3 4 5
 n
    
1 2 3 4
n 1

By the nth term test for divergence,

the series Diverges.
Page 55
d) Is the given series convergent or divergent?
If it is convergent, its it absolutely convergent
or conditionally convergent?
 n
( 1) 1 1 1 1
 n 
1

2

3

4
n 1
Converges by the alternating series test.
 n
( 1) 1 1 1 1
 n

1

2

3

4
n 1

Diverges since it is a p-series with p <1. The

Given series is conditionally convergent.
Page 56
 
The Ratio Test
Let  an be a series with positive terms and
n N
an 1
lim n  
an
Then
• The series converges if ρ < 1
• The series diverges if ρ > 1
• The test is inconclusive if ρ = 1.
Page 57
 The Root Test

Let  an be a series with non-zero terms and
n N

lim n  n | an |  L

Then
• The series converges if L< 1
• The series diverges if L > 1 or is infinite
• The test is inconclusive if L= 1.
Page 58
 
Example: n2

n 1 2
n

 
2 2
n
n lim n n
lim2n
n
n n  n 
2

n 2 1 2
1
n
lim
n  2

1

2
 it converges
Page 59
  n
2
Example 2:  2
n 1 n

n
2  2
n

2 n 2
n n

2 2
lim
n  n
n 2

1
2  it diverges

Page 60
 Convergence or divergence?
 n
2
 n!
n 1

 n
3
 n 2 2n 1
n 1

 2n
e
 nn
n 1

Page 61
 1
n
lim n lim n
n 
1 e n 1

lim n n
n  0
e
e
lim ln
n
 1
nn
1
1
lim ln n
e n n

ln n
lim Indeterminate, so we use L’Hôpital’s Rule
e n n

Page 62
. Procedure for determining Convergence

Page 63
 Power Series (infinite polynomial in x)


 n
c x n
 c0  c1 x  c 2 x 2
 .....c n x n
...
n 0

Is a power series centered at x = 0.


and
 n
c ( x  a ) n
 c0  c1 ( x  a )  c2 ( x  a ) 2
 .....c n ( x  a ) n
...
n0

Is a power series centered at x = a.

 Examples of Power Series


xn x2 x3
 n!
1 x 
2

3!
 ...
n0

Is a power series centered at x = 0.

and

( 1) n 1 1 1
 3n ( x  1) n
 1 
3
( x  1) 
9
( x  1) 2
 .....
3n
( x  1) n
...
n0

Is a power series centered at x = -1.

 Geometric Power Series

x n 2 3 4
 1  x  x  x  x  ...x n

n 0
a  1 and r  x
a 1
S   , x 1
1 r 1 x
P1  1  x
P2  1  x  x 2
P3  1  x  x 2  x 3
The graph of f(x) = 1/(1-x) and four of
its polynomial approximations
• A power series
 about the point x0
a x  x 
n
n 0
n 1

is said to converge absolutely at a point x if

 
the series
 a x x   an x  x0
n n
n 0
n 1 n 1

converges.

• If a series converges absolutely, then the

series also converges. The converse, however,
is not necessarily true.
Page 68
 Ratio Test
• One of the most useful tests for the absolute
convergence of a power series


a x  x 
n
n 0
n 1

is the ratio test. If an  0, and if, for a fixed

an 1 ( x  x0 ) n 1 an 1
value of x, lim
n  a ( x  x ) n
 x  x0 lim
n  a
 x  x0 L,
n 0 n

then the power series converges absolutely at

that value of x if |x - x0|L < 1 and diverges if |

x - x0|L > 1. The test is inconclusive if |x - x0|

Page 69
 Radius of Convergence
• There is a nonnegative number , called the radius of
convergence, such that  an(x - x0)n converges absolutely for

all x satisfying |x - x0| <  and diverges for |x - x0| > .

• For a series that converges only at x0, we define  to be zero.

• For a series that converges for all x, we say that  is infinite.

• If  > 0, then |x - x0| <  is called the interval of convergence.

• The series may either converge or diverge when |x - x0| = .

Page 70
 Convergence of a Power Series
To sum up, there are three possibilities
1)There is a positive number  such that the
series diverges for |x-a|>  but converges
for |x-a|< . The series may or may not
converge at the endpoints, x = a -  and x
= a + .

2)The series converges for every x. ( = .)

3)The series converges at x = a and diverges

elsewhere. ( = 0)
Page 71
Example 1
Find the radius of convergence for the power series


  x  1 n

n 0
Using the ratio test, we obtain
( x  1) n 1
lim  lim x  1  x  1  1, for  2  x  0
n  ( x  1) n n 

At x = -2 and x = 0, the corresponding series are,

respectively,
   

   2  1     1 ,   0  1   1
n n n n

n 0 n 0 n 0 n 0

Both series diverge, since the nth terms do not approach

zero.
Therefore the interval of convergence is (-2, 0), and
hence the radius of convergence is  = 1.

Page 72
Example 2
Find the radius of convergence for the power series
below. 
 x  1 n

n 1 n 3 n

Using the ratio test, we obtain

n 3n ( x  1) n 1 x 1 n x 1
lim  lim   1, for - 2  x  4
n   n  1 3n 1 ( x  1) n 3 n   n 1 3
At x = -2 and x = 4, the corresponding series are,
respectively,  n
  1

1

n 0 n
, 
n 0 n
These series are convergent alternating series and
divergent P-series (Harmonic) , respectively. Therefore
the interval of convergence is [-2, 4), and hence the
radius of convergence is  = 3.

Page 73
Example 3
Find the radius of convergence for the power

 x  2 n
series  n 1 n!

Using the ratio test, we obtain

n !( x  2) n 1 n!
lim  x  2 lim  0  1, for -   x  
n   n  1 !( x  2) n n   n  1 n !

Thus the interval of convergence is (-, ),

and hence the radius of convergence is
infinite.

Page 74
Example 4: What is the interval of convergence?

x n 2 3
 1  x  x  x  x  ...x4 n

n 0
Since r = x, the series converges |x| <1, or
-1 < x < 1. In interval notation (-1,1).
Test endpoints of –1 and 1.

 (1) n Series diverges
n 0

 (1) n
Series diverges
n 0
Page 75
 Geometric Power Series
Find the function

( 1) n 1 1 1
 3n
( x  1)  1  ( x  1)  ( x  1)  ..... n ( x  1) n ...
n
3 9
2
3
n0

1
a  1 and r   ( x  1)
3
a 1 3 3
S   
1  r 1  1 ( x  1) 3  ( x  1) 4 x
3
Example 4: Find the radius of convergence
1
r   ( x  1)
3
1
 2  x  4
 ( x  1)  1
3
Page 76
 Geometric Power Series
Example
Find 5:Find
the radius ofthe interval of convergence
convergence

( 1) n
For x = -2, 
n0 3n
( x  1) n

  
( 1) n ( 1) n ( 1) n 1
 3n (2  1)  
n
3 n
 n
n0 n0 n0 3

Geometric series with r < 1, converges

For x = 4
   
( 1) n ( 1) n
( 3) n
3n
 3n (4  1)n   3 n
  n  1
n 0 n 0 n 0 3 n 0

By nth term test, the series diverges.

Interval of convergence 2  x  4
Page 77
Example 6:Finding interval of convergence 
xn
 n
n0
Use the ratio test:
xn x n 1
un  and un 1 
n n 1
un 1 x n 1 n
lim n   lim n   n  x
un n 1 x
x 1 R=1 (-1, 1)
For x = 1 For x = -1 Interval of convergence


1 
( 1) n [-1, 1)
n n 0 n
n0
Harmonic series Alternating Harmonic
diverges series converges Page 78
 Differentiation and Integration of Power Series

If the function is given by the series


 n
c ( x  a ) n
 c0  c1 ( x  a )  c2 ( x  a ) 2
 .....c n ( x  a ) n
...
n0

Has a radius of convergence  >0, then on

the interval (c-, c+) the function is
continuous, differentiable and integrable
where: 
f ( x )   ncn ( x  a ) n 1
n0

( x  a )n
 f ( x ) dx  C   cn
n 0 n 1
The radius of convergence is the same but the
interval of convergence may differ at the endpoints.
Page 79
 Constructing Power Series

If a power series exists has a radius of

convergence =  It can be differentiated
f ( x )  c0  c1 ( x  a )  c2 ( x  a )  .....cn ( x  a ) n ...
2

f ( x )  c1  2c2 ( x  a )  3c3 ( x  a ) 2 .....ncn ( x  a ) n 1...

f ( x )  2c2  2 * 3c3 ( x  a )  3 * 4( x  a ) 2 ....

f ( x )  1* 2 * 3c3  2 * 3 * 4c4 ( x  a)  3 * 4 * 5( x  a) 2  ...

So the nth derivative is

(n)
f ( x)  n !cn  terms with factor of (x  a)

Page 80
 Finding the coefficients for a Power Series
(n)
f ( x )  n!cn  terms with factor of (x  a)

All derivatives for f(x) must equal the series

Derivatives at x = a.
f ( a )  c1
f ( a )  1* 2c2
f ( a )  1* 2 * 3c3

(n)
f ( a )  n!cn
(n)
f (a)
 cn
n!

Page 81
If f has a series representation centered
at

x=a, the series must be
f ( k ) (a) f ( a ) f ( a )
 k!  f ( a )  f ( x  a ) 
2!
( x  a)2 
3!
( x  a )3...
k 0
(n)
f (a ) n
 x  ...
n!

If f has a series representation centered

at x=0, the series must be

f ( k ) (0) f (0) f (0)
 k!  f ( a )  f (0) 
2!
( x  a ) 2

3!
( x  a )3 ...
k 0
(n)
f (0) n
 x  ...
n!

Page 82
 Taylor Series
• Suppose that  an(x - x0)n converges to f (x) for |x - x0| <
. (n)
Then the value of a is given by
f ( x0 )
• n an  ,
n!

and the series is called the Taylor series for f about x =

x0.
• Also, if 
f ( n ) ( x0 )
f ( x)    x  x0  n ,
n 1 n!

then f is continuous and has derivatives of all orders on

the interval of convergence. Further, the derivatives of
f can be computed by differentiating the relevant series
term by term. Page 83
 Analytic Functions
• A function f that has a Taylor series expansion about x =

f ( n ) ( x0 )
x0 f ( x)    x  x0  ,
n

n 1 n!
with a radius of convergence  > 0, is said to be analytic
at x0.

• All of the familiar functions of calculus are analytic.

• For example, sin x and ex are analytic everywhere, while

1/x is analytic except at x = 0, and tan x is analytic
except at odd multiples of  /2.

• If f and g are analytic at x0, then so are f  g, fg, and

f /g ; see text for details on these arithmetic
Page 84
 Series Equality
• If two power series are equal, that is,
 

a x  x    bn  x  x0 
n n
n 0
n 1 n 1

for each x in some open interval with center x0,

then an = bn for n = 0, 1, 2, 3,…


• In particular, if
a x  x 
n
n 0 0
n 1

then an = 0 for n = 0, 1, 2, 3,…

Page 85
 Shifting Index of Summation
• The index of summation in an infinite series is a dummy
parameter just as the integration variable in a definite
integral is a dummy variable.

• Thus it is immaterial which letter is used for the index of

summation:  

a x  x    ak  x  x0 
n k
n 0
n 1 k 1

• Just as we make changes in the variable of integration in

a definite integral, we find it convenient to make changes
of summation in calculating series solutions of differential
equations.
Page 86
Example 4: Shifting Index of Summation
• We can verify the equation
 

 n
a (
n 1
x  1) n 1
  n1
a ( x  1) n

n 0

by letting m = n -1 in the left series. Then n = 1

corresponds

to m = 0, and

hence
 n
a
n 1
( x  1) n 1
  m1
a ( x  1) m

m 0

• Replacing the dummy index m with n, we obtain

 

a
n 1
n ( x  1) n 1
  an 1 ( x  1)
n 0
n

as desired.
Page 87
 Example 5: Rewriting Generic Term
• We can write the series


 (
n 0
n  1) a n x n 3

as a sum whose generic term involves xn by letting m = n +

3.
Then n = 0 corresponds to m = 3, and n + 1 equals m – 2.
• It follows
 that 

 (
n 0
n  1) a n x n 3
  ( m  2 )
m 3
a m 3 x m

• Replacing the dummy index m with n, we obtain

 ( n  2) a
n 3
n
n 3 x

as desired.
Page 88
Form a Taylor Polynomial of order 3

for sin x at a =
4
n f(n)(x) f(n)(a) f(n)(a)/n!
2 2
2 2

0 sin x
2 2
2 2
1 cos x 2
2 
 2 * 2!
2
2 -sin x
2 2
 
2 2 * 3!

3 -cos x

Page 89
The graph of f(x) = ex and its Taylor
polynomials

Page 90
 Find the derivative and the integral

 n 2 3 4
x x x x
 n!
1 x 
2

3!

4!
 ...
n 0


 1 x
n 2 n 1
x3 x5 x7
 (2n  1)!
 x
3!

5!

7!
...
n 0

Page 91
Taylor polynomials for f(x) = cos (x)

Page 92
Converges only at x = 0

Page 93

Page 93