N N.B.K.R.

Institute of Science & Technology

(Autonomous)
Affiliated to JNTUA, Anantapuramu

POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DRIVES

UNIT-I
 UNIT-I
ELECTRIC DRIVES

Introduction:

• In general speed of machines are controlled by voltage & frequency

of supply voltage

• But the speed of rotation of an electrical machine can also controlled

precisely by implementing the concept of drive

• Electric Drive
Def:
• The system employed for motion control is known as electric drive.
• Drives act as prime movers for diesel or petrol engines, gas or steam
turbines, hydraulic motors and electric motors.
• This drive system is widely used in large number of industrial and
domestic applications like in factories, transportation systems, textile
mills, fans, robots etc.
• Block diagram:

Fig 1.Block diagram of electric drive

 Parts of Electrical Drives

Source:
• 1-φ and 3-φ, 50-Hz AC supplies are readily available in most
locations. Very low power drives are generally fed from 1-φ source;
however, the high power drives are powered from 3-φ source; some
of the drives are powered from a battery.
Power modulator
Power modulator performs the following functions:

• It modulates flow of power from the source to the motor

• It impart speed−torque characteristics required by the load.

• It regulates motor current within permissible values, such as

starting, braking, and speed reversal conditions.
• Selects the mode of operation of motor, i.e., motoring or braking.

• Converts source energy in the form suitable to the motor.

Electrical motors:
• Motors commonly used in electric drives are DC motors, induction motors,
synchronous motors, brushless DC motors, stepper motors, and switched
reluctance motors, etc.

• In olden days, induction and synchronous motors were employed mainly for
constant speed drives but not for variable speed drives, because of poor speed
regulation.

• But in nowadays, AC motors employed in variable speed drives due to the

development of semiconductors employing SCRs, power transistors, IGBTs, and
GTOs.
 Load:
• It is usually a machinery, such as fans, pumps, robots, and washing machines,
designed to perform a given task, usually load requirements, can be specified in
terms of speed and torque demands.
Control unit:
• Control unit controls the function of power modulator.

• The nature of control unit for a particular drive depends on the type of power
modulator used.

• When semiconductor converters are used, the control unit will consists of firing
circuits. Microprocessors also used when sophisticated control is required.

• Sensing unit:
• Sensing unit consists of speed sensor or current sensor.

• The sensing of speed is required for the implementation of closed loop speed
control schemes.
• Speed is usually sensed using tachometers coupled to the motor shaft. Current
sensing is required for the implementation of current limit control.

• Power Modulators - are the devices which alter the nature or frequency as
well as changes the intensity of power to control electrical drives. Roughly, power
modulators can be classified into three types
• Converters
• Variable impedance circuits
• Switching circuits

• As the name suggests, converters are used to converts source of power from one
type to other type.
• Depending on the type of function, converters can be divided into 5 types
1. AC to DC converters
2. AC regulators
3. Choppers or DC - DC converters
4. Inverters
5. Cycloconverters
AC to DC converters are used to obtain fixed DC supply from the AC
supply of fixed voltage. The very basic diagram of AC to DC converters
is like

Thyristor rectifiers converts fixed AC to variable DC

AC regulators converts fixed AC to variable AC of same frequency

Choppers or DC - DC converters

Chopper circuits converts fixed DC to variable DC

Inverters are used to get AC from DC, the operation is just opposite to that of
AC to DC converters. PWM semiconductors are used to invert the power.
• Cycloconverters

• Cycloconverters are used to convert the fixed frequency and fixed

voltage AC into variable frequency and variable voltage AC.
Thyristors are used in these converters to control the firing signals.

Variable Impedance circuits are used to controlling speed by varying the

resistance or impedance of the circuit. But these controlling methods are
used in low cost DC and ac drives. There can be two or more steps which
can be controlled manually or automatically with the help of contactors.
To limit the starting current inductors are used in AC motors.
• Switching circuits in motors and electrical drives are used for running the
motor smoothly and they also protect the machine during faults. These
circuits are used for changing the quadrant of operations during the
running condition of a motor
 Advantages of Electrical Drives
Electrical drives are readily used these days for controlling purpose but this is not
the only the advantage of Electrical drives. There are several other advantages which
are listed below -
•These drives are available in wide range torque, speed and power.
•The control characteristics of these drives are flexible. According to load
requirements these can be shaped to steady state and dynamic characteristics. As well
as speed control, electric braking, gearing, starting many things can be accomplished.
•They are adaptable to any type of operating conditions, no matter how much
vigorous or rough it is.
•They can operate in all the four quadrants of speed torque plane, which is not
applicable for other prime movers.
•They do not pollute the environment.
•They do not need refueling or preheating, they can be started instantly and can be
loaded immediately.
•They are powered by electrical energy which is atmosphere friendly and cheap
source of power.
Because of the above mentioned advantages of electrical drives, they are getting
more and more popular and are used in a wider range of applications.
Classification of Electric Drives
Based on supply
1. DC drives 2. AC drives
According to Means of Control
1. Manual 2. Semi automatic 3. Automatic
According to Number of machines
1. Individual drive2. Group drive 3. Multi-motor drive
Based on running speed
1. Constant speed drives 2. Variable speed drive
Based on control parameter
1. constant torque drive 2.constant power drive
Advantages of Electrical Drive
•They have flexible control characteristics. The steady state and
dynamic characteristics of electric drives can be shaped to satisfy the
load requirements.
•Drives can be provided with automatic fault detection systems.
Programmable logic controller and computers can be employed to
automatically control the drive operations in a desired sequence.
•They are available in wide range of torque, speed and power.
•They are adaptable to almost any operating conditions such as
explosive and radioactive environments
•It can operate in all the four quadrants of speed-torque plane
•They can be started instantly and can immediately be fully loaded
•Control gear requirement for speed control, starting and braking is
usually simple and easy to operate.
Applications of Electrical Drives
1.Paper mills
2.Cement Mills
3.Textile mills Sugar Mills
4.Steel Mills
5.Electric Traction
6. Petrochemical Industries
7. Electrical Vehicles
Choice (or) Selection of Electrical Drives
Choice of an electric drive depends on a number of factors. Some of
the important factors are.
•Steady State Operating conditions requirements --- Nature of speed
torque characteristics, speed regulation, speed range, efficiency, duty
cycle, quadrants of operation, speed fluctuations if any, ratings etc
•Transient operation requirements --- Values of acceleration and
deceleration, starting, braking and reversing performance.
•Requirements related to the source --- Types of source and its
capacity, magnitude of voltage, voltage fluctuations, power factor,
harmonics and their effect on other loads, ability to accept
regenerative power
•Capital and running cost, maintenance needs life.
•Space and weight restriction if any.
•Environment and location.
•Reliability.
 Classification of Electric Drive with Advantage and Disadvantage
Classification of Drives
As we know, the electric drive has been used extensively in high amount but the
use of electric drives differs from place to place. Number of drive used is varied and
method of using is also varied so electric drive used may be divided into three types
Group Drives
In this drive, only one single electric motor is used and other entire working
machines are operated by means of line shaft from that single motor. All the operation
is done with energy transmitted via line shaft so that it is also called as line shaft drive.
The line shaft is fitted with a belt and multi-stepped pulleys which are connected to
working equipment with variation in speed. Due to its whole system driving nature, its
rating is usually high. This type of drives is used in that industry in which different
equipment are a relatively small change in speed. Usually, this type of drives is adopted
when existing industries are changed over from using engine drive to electric motor
drive because purchasing more than motor for operation will be costly.
Group Drive
The advantages of using group drives
1.Since only one motor is used, it is economical to afford single motor than
numbers of the motor. Motor operates at high power factor causing less loss.
2.Due to the presence of single motor, the operation is simple.
3.Overload percentage decreases while using group drive. The disadvantages of
using group drives
•Reliability is low because malfunction of the motor causes shut down of the entire
system.
•The wide range of speed variation is not obtained.
•Problems of tear and wear exist in line shaft.
•Speed change is in proportion, line shaft has to be changed to change the
individual speed.
•All the individuals shaft connected equipment has to operate even their use is not
required
•If the shaft is disconnected to stop operation of individual equipment, the motor
will operate at low capacity hence low efficiency.
•Since high rated motor is used, the level of noise produces is very high.
•Loss of energy in line shaft is in considerable amount because a large number of
the shaft is being used.
•Due to the use of line shaft, it does not provide the good appearance and it seems
less safe to work.
 To overcome the disadvantages of group drives, the individual drive is
introduced.
Individual drives
In this drive, the separate motor is used to drive the each individual equipment
using gears, pulleys, ropes. The individual motor is designed to fulfill the requirement
of that specific equipment. This type of drive is used where speed constancy and
flexibility in control is major issues such as lift, cranes, shapers, lathes, drilling
machines etc. The use of individual drive has introduced the concept of automation
in the production process. Individual drives are introduced due to shortcomings of
group drives so it eliminates most of the problem caused by group drives.

Individual Drive
 The advantages of using individual drives are:
•The separate motor is used for each equipment, hence, reliability is
high.
•Concept of automation is introduced
•Speed can be maintained according to the requirements of equipment.
•Facility of complete control over the equipment and motor.
•The machine can be placed in the desired position and can be moved
easily.
•Non-required equipment can be disconnected from an integrated
system which eliminates the no-load losses.
•Appearance, cleanliness, and safety are better. The disadvantages of
using individual drives are:
•The cost of a high number of the motor is high.
•Each equipment has its control mechanism so the system becomes
complex.
•Some power loss occurs in energy transmitting media.
The disadvantages of individual drives are overcome by using multi
motor drive.
 Multimotor drive
In this drive, each motor is provided in order to drive different actuating parts in
a single equipment. For example in the single crane, three motors is used. One is for
hoisting, another is for travelling motion and the third one is for cross travel motion.
The Same motor can not do all work efficiently so the separate motor is provided.
Other examples of the use of multi motor drive are metal cutting machine tools,
paper making machines, rolling mills, rotary printing machines. The use of multi
motor has also introduced the concept of automation in production. The problems
arise in individual drive is overcome by this drive.

Multimotor drive
The advantages of using multimotor drives are:
•It introduces the concept of automation.
•Reliability is increased as more motor is used.
•The separate motor is provided for specific mechanism hence easy control and
operation. The disadvantages of using multimotor drives are:
•The system will be costly because a large number of the motor has been used.
•System will be complex because of a large number of the control system.

Comparison of group individual and multi motor drive:

Group Drive Individual drive Multimotor drive
A single motor is used Separate motor is used Separate motor is used to
to operate all the to operate individual operate different parts in
equipment. equipment. single equipment.
Reliability is less Reliability is higher than Reliability is large
group drive
No automation Automation Automation
Relative speed change is Different speed can be Different speed can be
small employed employed
The system is simple System is more complex System is most complex
than group drive among all drives.
Speed torque expressions & Characteristics of DC motors:
The performance and, therefore, suitability of a DC motor are determined from its
characteristics. The important characteristics of DC motor are:
(i)Torque vs. armature current characteristics (T vs. Ia):
This characteristic curve gives relation between torque developed in the armature (T)
and armature current (Ia). This is also known as electrical characteristic.
(ii)Speed vs. armature current characteristics (N vs. Ia):
This characteristic curve gives relation between speed (N) and armature current (Ia).
This is also known as speed characteristics.
(iii)Output (HP) vs. armature current characteristics (HP vs. Ia):
The horse power of the motor is dependent on the shaft torque, so its characteristics
follows shaft torque characteristic.
(iv)Speed vs. Torque characteristics (N vs. T):
This characteristic gives relation between speed (N) and torque (T) developed in the
armature. This curve may be derived from the two characteristics mentioned in
characteristics (i) and (ii) above.
Characteristics (i), (ii), and (iii) are called starting characteristics, and (iv) is known as
running characteristics.
Motor characteristics are discussed using the following relations:

where 
T =the torque developed in the armature in N-m,
 Ia =the armature current in ampere,
 Eb = the back emf in volts, and
 φ = the flux in weber.
Characteristics of DC shunt motor:
The field winding connected across the armature terminals called as shunt motor as
shown in Fig  Rated voltage is applied across the field and armature terminals.

Fig. DC shunt motor

 Starting characteristics:
The study of starting characteristics of a motor is essential to know the starting
torque necessary to accelerate the motor from standstill position is also to require
to overcome the static friction and the standstill load or, to provide load torque.
Torque vs. armature current (T Vs Ia):
In the expression for the torque of a DC motor, torque is directly proportional
to the product of flux per pole (φ) and armature current (Ia):

Since, in case of a DC shunt motor, the flux per pole (φ) is considered to be constant.
∴ T ∝ Ia.
So, the torque is proportional to armature current and is practically a straight line
passing through the origin as shown if Fig
 Fig. Torque vs. armature current characteristics
To generate high starting torque, this type of motor requires a large value of
armature current at starting. This may damage the motor, hence DC shunt motors
can develop moderate starting torque and hence suitable for such applications
where starting torque requirement is moderate.
Speed vs. armature current (N Vs Ia):
In shunt motor, the applied voltage ‘ V' is kept constant, the field current will
remain constant, and hence the flux will have maximum value on no load due to
the armature reaction; if load on the motor increases, the flux will be slightly
decrease. By neglecting the armature reaction, the flux is almost constant.
From the speed equation of DC shunt motor:
 where Eb = V − IaRa

Since, for DC shunt motor, the flux per pole is considered to be

constant. 

So, as the load on the motor increases, the armature current increases and hence IaRa drop
also increases. For constant supply, the voltage (V-IaRa) decreases and hence the speed
reduces. Hence, as armature current increases, the speed of the DC motor decreases. The
variation of speed with armature current is shown in Fig
 Fig. Speed vs. armature current characteristics
Output vs. armature current:
The output of the motor is dependent on the shaft torque. If the
armature current increases, the output of the motor gradually
increases. The variation of output with the armature current is
shown in Fig
 Fig. Armature current and HP characteristics

Running characteristics:
Speed-torque characteristics (N vs. T):
These characteristics can be derived from its starting characteristics
of (i) and (ii). During the steady-state operation of the motor, the
voltage equation of the armature circuit is given by:
where 
V is the applied voltage, 
Eb is the back emf of motor,
 Ia is the armature current, and
 Ra is the armature resistance.
The back emf of motor can be expressed as:
  Eb ∝φ N
  ∴Eb = K φ N,
where K is the constant,

Substituting Eb =V-IaRa in above equation:

Since, the shunt motor flux is constant, the speed of the motor is:
where K1 = Kφ.
 When V and Ra are kept constant, the speed torque characteristic is a straight line.
If the load on the motor increases, thus the torque increases and hence the speed
of the motor decreases. The characteristic curve can be drawn from
the equation and is shown in Fig

Fig. Speed and torque characteristics

Characteristics of series motor:
In case of series motor, the field windings are connected in series with armature
terminals as shown in Fig. Since, the field winding is connected in series with the
armature winding, the load current (IL) is equals to the armature current (Ia) or the
series field current (Ise).
∴ IL = Ia = Ise.

Fig. DC series motor

Starting characteristics:
Torque vs. armature current (T Vs Ia):
In case of DC motors, torque is directly proportional to the product of flux per pole
(φ) and armature current (Ia).
∴ T ∝ φ Ia.
 Upto the saturation point, the flux is proportional to the field current and hence
the armature current:
i.e., φ ∝ Ise ∝ Ia.
 Therefore, the torque is proportional to the square of the armature current.

Hence, the curve drawn in Fig the torque and the armature currents are parabolas,
up to saturation point. After saturation, the flux (φ) is almost independent of the
excitation current and so the torque is proportional to the armature current,
i.e., T ∝ Ia.
Hence the characteristics become a straight line. The variation of torque with the
armature current is shown in Fig
 Fig. Torque and armature current
Speed vs. armature current:
From the speed equation of DC series motor, the speed is directly proportional to
the back emf and is inversely proportional to flux:

where Eb = V − IaRse.
When the armature current increases, the voltage drop due to the armature
resistance and the field resistance increases.
Under the normal conditions, the voltage drop is small and it is negligible.
Hence, V = Eb and it is constant:

This relation shows the variation of speed with the armature current and it will be
a rectangular hyperbola, which is shown in Fig.

Fig.  Speed and armature current

Running characteristics:
Speed-torque characteristics:
These characteristics can be derived by its starting characteristics. It is also known
as mechanical characteristic.
In case of series motors: 
T ∝ ϕIa ∝Ia2

As the torque of a DC machine is directly proportional to armature current and flux,

the speed will be inversely proportional to the square root of the torque, i.e., from
the above two relations:

But at higher loads, the flux becomes saturated and the torque will be
proportional to armature current, so the speed can be represented as:
 The speed–torque characteristics of a DC series motor is shown in Fig

Fig.  Speed–torque characteristics

 

Hence, the series motors are best suited for services where the motor is directly
coupled to the load such that speed falls with the increase in load torque.
Characteristics of DC compound wound motors:
Compound motors have both series and shunt windings. If the series field
excitation aids with the shunt excitation, then the motor is said to be cumulatively
compounded. If the series field opposes the shunt field excitation, it is known
as differential compound motor. The characteristics of such motors lie in between
shunt and series motors.
Cumulative-compound motor
Φtotal=Φseries+Φshunt
Since, the series field aids with the shunt field winding, the flux is
increased as load is applied to the motor, the motor speed slightly
decreases. Such machines are used where series characteristics are
required. Due to the shunt field, the winding speed will not become
excessively high, but due to the series field winding, it will be able to
take heavy loads.
Compound wound motors have the greatest application with loads
that require high starting torques or pulsating load.
Differential-compound motors
Φtotal= Φseries- Φshunt
In this motor, the series field opposes the shunt field and the flux is
decreased, as load is applied to the motor. This results in the motor
speed that is almost constant or even increasing with increase in load.
The speed-armature current and the torque–armature current
characteristics of both the cumulative and the differential compound
motors are shown in below two Figs
Speed and armature current characteristics

Torque and armature current characteristics