Transformer Theory

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Purpose
-Step-up or step-down voltage and current
Construction
-generally consists of one or more coils (winding) of conducting wire, wound
on a former (bobbin) that surrounds the centre limb (sometimes all limbs) of a
circuit of magnetic material (core).
-winding wires are insulated and the core is made from thin sheet steel plates
known as laminations (this reduces 'eddy current' losses).
-Common types of lamination are shown at left, they are known by the shape
of alphabetic letter that they form « E », « T », « U », « F ».
-The laminations are often oxidised to form a surface film of oxide that has a
higher resistance than plain steel, thus isolating each layer to a certain extent
and reducing eddy currents that may occur perpendicular to the plane of
lamination
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 -laminations when assembled form an interleaved 'stack' or 'core'. The interleaving
is usually to avoid any gaps in the magnetic circuit as air is much less permeable to
magnetic flux than iron and steel.

-magnetic flux runs around the two side limbs and combines in the centre limb
which is twice the cross sectional area of a single side limb, thus keeping flux
density constant.

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Principle
The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can
produce a magnetic field and secondly that a changing magnetic field within a coil
of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction.
Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is
developed. The changing magnetic flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil.

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Induction law (Faraday)

The ratio of the two equations for VS and VP gives the basic for stepping up
or stepping down the voltage

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Ideal power equation

Pincoming = IPVP = Poutgoing = ISVS

the ideal transformer equation

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 Energy Losses
Transformer losses are divided into losses in the windings, termed copper
loss, and those in the magnetic circuit, termed iron. Losses in the
transformer arise from:
Winding resistance
Current flowing through the windings causes resistance heating of the
conductors. At higher frequencies, skin effect and proximity create
additional winding resistance and losses.
Hysteresis losses
Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is
lost due to hysteresis within the core. For a given core material, the
loss is proportional to the frequency, and is a function of the peak flux
density to which it is subjected.
Eddy currents
Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a solid core
made from such a material also constitutes a single short-circuited
turn throughout its entire length. Eddy currents therefore circulate
within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for
resistive heating of the core material. The eddy current loss is a
complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse
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square of the material thickness.
Magnetostriction
Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to
physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic
field, an effect known as magnetostriction. This produces the buzzing
sound commonly associated with transformers, and in turn causes losses
due to frictional heating in susceptible cores.
Mechanical losses
In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes
fluctuating electromagnetic forces between the primary and secondary
windings. These incite vibrations within nearby metalwork, adding to the
buzzing noise, and consuming a small amount of power.
Stray losses
Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to
its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle.
However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials
such as the transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents
and be converted to heat. There are also radiative losses due to the
oscillating magnetic field, but these are usually small.

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 Equivalent circuit

Consider a simple ideal inductor

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 In a real inductor

Ie :excitation current
Ife: eddy current through Iron core (heating)
Iμ: magnetising current
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Taking into consideration the resistance R of the coil and the
leakage flux Φs which goes thru air and induces a voltage Es
in the coil.

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 Overall equivalent circuit of Inductor

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 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer (single phase)

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Equation of magnetomotive forces in complex notation:
Fme = Fm1 − Fm2

where Fme is the mmf responsible for generation of flux Φ .

where:
Ie - excitation current, and
I2' - secondary current referred to the primary side.
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From the equivalent circuit

V1 = E1 + (R1 + jXs1)I1

V2 = E2 − (R2 + jXs2 )I2

or written in other form:

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 Are the secondary circuit
parameters
referred to the primary side

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 Phasor diagram of the real transformer at the inductive
load (load current is lagging the voltage)

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 Test for determination of circuit parameters

Open-circuit test

Measured quantities: V1 , Io , Po and V2 .

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 Short-circuit test

Since Ie << Isc

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Measured quantities: V1 , Isc , Psc .
Since:
Psc = Rsc Isc2

the following parameters can be determined from the measured quantities:

the short-circuit reactance is equal to

For most of power transformers:

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 The phasor diagram corresponding to the equivalent circuit

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 Transformer operation at on-load condition

Simplified equivalent circuit of the transformer at on-load operation

Inductive load

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 Capacitive load

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