Chapter 2

Classifications
&
Presentation of Data
Meaning of Data

Data is raw facts collected together for reference or analysis. It is the

raw information from which statistics are created.   Statistics are the
results of data analysis - its interpretation and presentation. In other
words some computation has taken place that provides some
understanding of what the data means. Statistics are often, though
they don’t have to be, presented in the form of a table, chart, or graph. 
Meaning Need of Classification of Data

Classification is the process of arranging the collected data into classes

and to subclasses according to their common characteristics.
Classification is the grouping of related facts into classes. E.g. sorting of
letters in post office.
A proper data classification allows your organization to apply
appropriate controls based on that predetermined category data.
Remember, your controls often come with a cost. You don't necessarily
need to have the same kinds of controls for all kinds of data. Classifying
your data can save you time and money because you are able to focus
on what’s important, and not waste your time putting unnecessary
controls in place.
Objectives of Classification of Data

▪ It condenses the mass of data in an easily comprehensible and

capable of being assimilated.
▪ It eliminates unnecessary details.
▪ It facilitates comparison and highlights the significant aspect of data.
▪ It enables one to get a mental picture of the information and helps in
drawing inferences.
▪ It helps in the further statistical analysis of the information collected.
Types/Procedure of Classification of Data

▪ Geographical Classification: When In this type of classification, the

data are classified on the basis of attribute under study cannot be
location, region or areas, it is called measured. It can only be found
geographical classification.
out whether it is present or
▪ Chronological Classification: absent in the units of study.
Chronological classification means
classification on the basis of time, ▪ Quantitative Classification:
like months, years etc. Quantitative classification
▪ Qualitative Classification: In
refers to the classification of
Qualitative classification, data are data according to some
classified on the basis of some characteristics, which can be
attributes or quality such as sex, measured such as height,
color of hair, literacy and religion. weight, income, profits etc.
Variable: Any quantitative characteristic
under study is known as Variable.

▪ Discrete Variable: Discrete ▪ Continuous Variable: Continuous

variables are countable in a Variables would (literally) take
finite amount of time. For forever to count. In fact, you
example, you can count the would get to “forever” and never
change in your pocket. You can finish counting them. For
count the money in your bank example, take age. You can’t
account. You could also count count “age”. Why not? Because
the amount of money it would literally take forever. For
example, you could be:
in everyone’s bank accounts. It
25 years, 10 months, 2 days, 5
might take you a long time to hours, 4 seconds, 4 milliseconds,
count that last item, but the 8 nanoseconds, 99 picosends…
point is—it’s still countable. and so on.
Measurement & Measurement Scales

Measurement may be defined as the assignment of numbers to objects or events according

to certain rules. The measurement of an object or an event or observation may be according
to height, weight or any number. Measurement of statistical data is essential for further
statistical analysis. There are generally four types of measurement scales; they are:
▪ Nominal Scale: A nominal scale is the 1st level of measurement scale in which the numbers
serve as “tags” or “labels” to classify or identify the objects. A nominal scale usually deals
with the non-numeric variables or the numbers that do not have any value. Example:
What is your gender?
▪ M- Male
▪ F- Female
▪ Here, the variables are used as tags, and the answer to this question should be either M or
F.
Measurement Scales

▪ Ordinary Scale: The ordinal scale is ▪ Interval Scale: The interval scale is the
the 2nd level of measurement that 3rd level of measurement scale. It is
reports the ordering and ranking of defined as a quantitative
data without establishing the measurement scale in which the
degree of variation between them. difference between the two variables
Ordinal represents the “order.” is meaningful. In other words, the
Ordinal data is known as qualitative variables are measured in an exact
data or categorical data. It can be manner, not as in a relative way in
grouped, named and also ranked. which the presence of zero is
Example: arbitrary. Example:

▪ Ranking of school students – 1st, ▪ Likert Scale

2nd, 3rd, etc. ▪ Net Promoter Score (NPS)
▪ Ratings in restaurants ▪ Bipolar Matrix Table
Measurement of Scales

▪ Ratio Scale: The ratio scale is the 4th level of measurement scale, which is
quantitative. It is a type of variable measurement scale. It allows researchers to
compare the differences or intervals. The ratio scale has a unique feature. It
possesses the character of the origin or zero points. An example of a ratio scale is:
What is your weight in Kgs?
▪ Less than 55 kgs
▪ 55 – 75 kgs
▪ 76 – 85 kgs
▪ 86 – 95 kgs
▪ More than 95 kgs
Raw Data

Data, which are neither arranged in ascending order nor in descending

order of magnitude, is called raw data. Arranging the data either in
ascending order or descending order of magnitude is known as
arranged data or ‘Array’.
Frequency and Frequency Distribution

The number of times that a certain value of the variables is repeated in

the given data is called Frequency. It is generally denoted by (f).
A frequency distribution is the representation of data, either in a
graphical or tabular format, to displays the number of observation
within a given integral. In Statistics, a frequency distribution is a table
that displays the number of outcomes of a sample. Each entry
occurring in the table contains the count or frequency of occurrence of
the values within a group.
Tally Bars (or Tally Marks)

Tally marks are an exciting and easy topic of statistics. Generally, tally
marks and graphs are used to keep and count the score. The symbol ‘|’
is used to denote the value one. In earlier days, before the discovery of
the numbers, it was tough to keep track of the individual belongings of
people, e.g., humans used to have domestic animals such as goats and
cows thus, keeping track of their count was very hard if the number was
huge. At that time, tally marks were beneficial.
Ungrouped Frequency Distribution

A table consisting of variable values and their corresponding

frequencies is known as ungrouped frequency distribution. In this
distribution, data are not classified (or grouped) into different classes or
groups.
Grouped Frequency Distribution

Classification of data according to their characteristics is known as

grouped data. A table consisting of grouped or classified data and their
corresponding frequencies is known as grouped frequency distribution.
Cumulative Frequency Distribution

A frequency distribution consisting of the cumulative frequencies

against the values of the variable arranged either in ascending order of
magnitude or descending order of magnitude is known as cumulative
frequency distribution. There are two ways of expressing cumulative
frequency distribution; they are:
▪ Less than cumulative frequency distribution
▪ More than cumulative frequency distribution
Conversion of Inclusive Class Interval to
Exclusive Class Interval

Conversion Factor(C.F.) = (Lower Limit of next Class Interval - Upper

Limit of Previous Class Interval)/ 2
Now,
Real Lower Limit = Lower Limit - C.F.
Real Upper Limit = Upper Limit + C.F.
Relative Frequency

Relative frequency is simply the proportion of the observations

belonging to the class with N observations. Mathematically,
Relative Frequency of Class = Frequency of Class/Sum of Frequency(N)
Tabulation of data

Tabulation is a systematic & logical presentation of numeric data in

rows and columns to facilitate comparison and statistical analysis. It
facilitates comparison by bringing related information close to each
other and helps in further statistical analysis and interpretation.
Parts of Table

▪ Table Number: In order to identify tables, every table ▪ Head Note: Generally, a head note is kept
should be numbered. The number of table is normally
kept in the top of the table. just below the title of table indicating the
unit of measurement applicable to the
▪ Title of Table: Every table must have the title
indicating the type of data contained. The title should
data displayed. It is normally kept within
be short clear and non-ambiguous. brackets.
▪ Caption and Stubs: A table consists of number of rows ▪ Footnote: It is sometimes necessary to
and columns. The headings and subheadings used in
columns are known as captions while those used in provide some explanation for the data
rows are known as stubs. Extra column and rows are used or to explain the meaning of
also needed in the table for the column total and row abbreviations used in the table. It is
totals .
generally kept in the bottom of the table
▪ Body of the Table: This is the most important part of i.e. just below the last horizontal line.
the table. Generally it contains data. The data are
entered from the top to bottom in columns and from ▪ Source: If data are borrowed from any
left to right in rows.
source, it is necessary to give the source
of data from where it is taken. This is also
. in the form of footnote
Bivariate Frequency Distribution

Frequency distribution having values of only one variable is known as

univariate frequency distribution whereas frequency distribution having
values of two variables is known as bivariate frequency distribution.
Presentation of Data

Presentation of data refers to the organization of data into tables,

graphs or charts, so that logical and statistical conclusions can be
derived from the collected measurements. There mainly two important
methods of presenting data namely diagrammatical and geographical
presentation.
Types of Presentation of Data

▪ Diagrammatic Presentation: ▪ Graphical Presentation:

Diagrammatic presentation is Graphical
a technique representation refers to the
of presenting numeric data thr use of charts and graphs to
ough Bar Diagrams & Pie visually display, analyze, clarify,
Diagrams etc. It is the most and interpret numerical data,
attractive and appealing way to functions, and other qualitative
represent statistical data. structures.
Diagrams help in visual
comparison and have a bird's
eye view.
Bar Diagram

A bar graph can be defined as a chart or a graphical representation of data, quantities or numbers

using bars or strips. Bar graphs are used to compare and contrast numbers, frequencies or other measures
of distinct categories of data.
Types of Bar Diagram:
▪ Simple Bar Diagram: A simple bar diagram is used to represent data involving only one variable
classified on a spatial, quantitative or temporal basis. In a simple bar chart, we make bars of equal width
but variable length, i.e. the magnitude of a quantity is represented by the height or length of the bars.
▪ Sub-divided or Component Bar Diagram: A sub-divided or component bar diagram is used to represent
data in which the total magnitude is divided into different or components. In this diagram, first we make
simple bars for each class taking the total magnitude in that class and then divide these simple bars into
parts in the ratio of various components.
▪ Percentage Sub-divided Bar Diagram: To draw a sub-divided bar chart on a percentage basis, we express
each component as the percentage of its respective total. In drawing a percentage bar chart, bars of
length equal to 100 for each class are drawn in the first step and sub-divided into the proportion of the
percentage of their component in the second step. The diagram so obtained is called a percentage
component bar chart or percentage stacked bar chart.
Types of Bar Diagram

▪ Multiple Bar Diagram: A chart depicting two or more characteristics

in the form of bars of length proportional in magnitude of the
characteristics. For example, a chart comparing the age and sex
distribution of two populations may be drawn with sets of bars,
one bar of each pair for each population, and one pair for each age
group.
Pie-Diagram or Circular Diagram

A pie chart is a type of graph that represents the data in the

circular graph. The slices of pie show the relative size of the data. It is a
type of pictorial representation of data. A pie chart requires a list of
categorical variables and the numerical variables. Here, the term “pie”
represents the whole, and the “slices” represents the parts of the
whole. 
Type of Graphical Presentation of Data

▪ Graph of Time Series: Time series graphs can be used to visualize trends in

counts or numerical values over time. Because date and time information
is continuous categorical data (expressed as a range of values), points are
plotted along the x-axis and connected by a continuous line.
1. False Base Line: False base line is indicated by a cut or a link on the X-
axis or Y-axis, as in the adjoining picture. It is used when the values in a
series are very large and the difference between the smallest value and
zero is high.
▪ Graph of Frequency Distribution or Frequency Graph: This is another
category of graphs which shows the graphical relationship between the
variable values and their corresponding frequencies of the data under
consideration.
Types of Frequency Graphs

▪ Histogram: A histogram is used to summarize discrete or 1. Less than cumulative frequency (or less than ogive)
continuous data. In other words, it provides a visual
interpretation of numerical data by showing the number 2. More than cumulative frequency (or more than
of data points that fall within a specified range of values
ogive)
(called “bins”). It is similar to a vertical bar graph.
However, a histogram, unlike a vertical bar graph, shows
no gaps between the bars. ▪ Cumulative Frequency Curve (or Ogive):
An Ogive Chart is a curve of the cumulative frequency
▪ Frequency Polygon: A frequency polygon is a visual distribution or cumulative relative frequency
representation of a distribution. The visualization tool is distribution. For drawing such a curve, the
used to understand the shape of a distribution. Essentially, frequencies must be expressed as a percentage of the
the frequency polygon indicates the number of total frequency. Then, such percentages are
occurrences for each distinct class in the dataset. In cumulated and plotted, as in the case of an Ogive.
addition, the graph may be used to show the cumulative
frequency distribution. ▪ Relative Frequency Curves: A relative frequency
histogram is a type of graph that shows how often
▪ Frequency Curve: A frequency-curve is a smooth curve for something happens, in percentages.  The price of the
which the total area is taken to be unity. It is a limiting categories (“bins“) are on the horizontal axis (the x-
form of a histogram or frequency polygon. The frequency axis) and the relative frequencies (percentages of the
curve for a distribution can be obtained by drawing a
smooth and free hand curve through the midpoints of the
whole) are shown in the vertical column (the y-axis).
upper sides of the rectangles forming the histogram.
There are two types of ogive; they are: