NR 215

PLANT BIOLOGY
Lecture 6:
Leaves
Outline
 Leaf Arrangements and Types
 Internal Structures of Leaves
 Stomata
 Mesophyll and Veins
 Specialized Leaves
 Autumnal Changes in Colour
 Abscission
 Relevance of Leaves
Leaf Overview
 All leaves originate as
primordia in the buds
 At maturity, most leaves have
a stalk (petiole) and a flattened
blade (lamina) with a network
of veins (vascular bundles)
 Green leaves capture sunlight
and thus go through
photosynthesis (future lecture)
 Lower surfaces of leaves are
dotted with stomata which
allow carbon dioxide to enter
and oxygen and water to diffuse
out
 Guard Cells control stomatal
opening
Response to Stimuli
 Plants In Motion
 Sunflower solar tracking
 Circadian movements: Bean leaf
Leaf Overview
 Transpiration occurs when
water evaporates from the leaf
surface
 Guttation = Root pressure
forces water out hydathodes
 A hydathode is a type of secretory
tissue in leaves that secretes
water through pores in the
epidermis (typically at the tip of a
marginal tooth or serration) as a
result of root pressure
 Hydathodes are connected to the
plant vascular system by a
vascular bundle
Leaf Arrangement
and Type
 One of the main criteria
used to ID plant species
 Incredibly diverse:
 <1mm to >6m in length
Leaf Arrangements and Types
 Leaves are attached to stems at
nodes, with stem regions
between nodes known as
internodes
 Phylotaxy (leaf arrangement)
generally occurs in one of three
ways:
 Alternate
 Opposite
 Whorled
 Leaf Arrangement
 Leaves:
 Simple
 Single blade
 Compound
 Divided into leaflets
 Pinnate compound leaves
have leaflets in pairs
along the rachis
 Palmate compound
leaves have all the
leaflets attached at the
same point at the end of
the petiole
Leaf Arrangements and
Types

 Arrangement of veins in a leaf or leaflet blade may also be pinnate

or palmate
 Pinnate veined leaves have a main midvein within a midrib (like a feather)
 Secondary veins branch from midvein
 Palmate veined leaves have several primary veins that fan out from the
base of the blade (like a palm)
 Parallel in monocots
 Divergent in dicots (reticulate or netted venation)
Internal Structure of Leaves
 Epidermis is a single layer of cells covering the entire surface of the leaf
 Upper epidermal cells are devoid of chloroplasts (protection)
 Waxy cuticle often present (protection and prevent water loss)
 Trichomes may be present (hairs or glands)
 Glands: Oils or sticky substances
 Hairs: Interfere with the feeding of some small herbivores; keep frost away from the living surface cells;
hairs break-up the flow of air across the plant surface, reducing evaporation)
Sticky resinous growths knows as
trichomes are home to the active
ingredients (i.e. THC) in cannabis.
 Stomata
 Lower epidermis of most plants are perforated by numerous
stomata
 100’s – 10,000’s per cm2
 Guard cells originate from the same parent cell
 Primary function includes regulating gas exchange between leaf

interior and the atmosphere and the evaporation of water

Stomata: Function
 Cell water pressure regulates guard cells which in turn regulate stomata
 The inner wall of the guard cell which surrounds the pore is thicker than the outer walls
 The cellulose microfibrils which make up the cell wall of the guard cell, radiate out around
their circumference
 As water moves into the vacuoles of the guard cells, their content is increased and so
is the pressure of their cytoplasm against their cell walls…the cell walls begin to
stretch
 The arrangement of the cellulose microfibrils and the difference in thickness of the
wall causes the outer wall to stretch more than the inner. The outer walls thus pulls
the inner walls away from each other causing the pore to open
 Sergei Vickulin, St. Petersburg, Russia
 SEM image of a leaf surface…41 million years
old!
Mesophyll
 Most photosynthesis takes place in the mesophyll between the two
epidermal layers
 Palisade Mesophyll
 Elongated, narrow parenchyma cells with their long axes at right angles to the
axis of the leaf and are situated under the upper epidermis
 Chloroplasts are especially concentrated in the palisade mesophyll and it is in
these cells that much of the photosynthesis takes place
 Spongy Mesophyll
 Consists of irregularly shaped parenchyma cells which are located between the
palisade mesophyll and the lower epidermis
 Spongy mesophyll cells contain less chloroplast than the palisade mesophyll
cells but photosynthesis take place in these cells as well
 There are many intercellular air spaces between the spongy mesophyll cells
which are interconnected and communicate with the stomata of the lower
epidermis
 Allows the food-producing cells of the leaf to access the gases (CO 2  and O2) which
they need for photosynthesis and respiration
 Monocot leaves usually not differentiated into palisade and spongy
layers
 Veins
 Veins (Vascular bundles) are scattered
throughout the mesophyll
 Consist of xylem and phloem tissues
surrounded by the bundle sheath (thick-walled
parenchyma)
 Transport water and dissolved minerals into
the leaf which are used for the production of
organic substances during photosynthesis
and related chemical pathways
 Also responsible for transporting these
substances away from the leaves to the other
parts of the tree where they will be used
 The larger veins of  the leaf provide the
mesophyll of the leaf with support
Leaf Overview
 McGraw-Hill Animation:
 Animation Chapt07.swf
Specialized Leaves
 Shade Leaves
 Leaves in the shade receive
less total light, thus tend to
be thinner and have fewer
hairs and chloroplasts than
leaves on the same tree
exposed to direct light
 Leaves of Arid Regions
 Many have thick, leathery
leaves and few stomata
 Some have succulent, water-
retaining leaves, or dense,
hairy coverings
Specialized Leaves
 Tendrils (may be
specialized stems or leaves)
 Modified leaves that curl
around more rigid objects
helping the plant to climb or
support weak stems
 Become coiled like a spring
as they develop
 Sclerenchyma (rigid support)
and collenchyma (flexible
support) develop
 Specialized Leaves
 Spines, Thorns, and Prickles
 Spines (e.g. barberry, black locust)
 Modified leaves designed to reduce
water loss and protect from herbivory
 Most spines are modifications of the
whole leaf (e.g. leaf becomes
primarily sclerenchyma cells)
 Compare to:
 Thorns (e.g. citrus plants)
 Modified stems arising in the

axils of leaves of woody plants

 Prickles (e.g. rose, raspberry)
 Outgrowths from the epidermis or

cortex
Spines (leaves) Thorns (stems)

Prickles (epidermis)
 Specialized Leaves
 Storage Leaves
 Succulents (water storage),
fleshy leaves of bulbs (carb
storage for next season’s
growth, e.g. onion)
 Flower-Pot Leaves
 Dischidia’s urn-like pouches
 Grows on other trees, pouches
become ant colonies
 Ants carry soil and provide
nitrogen (waste)
 H20 collects in leaves through
stomata
 Roots develop adventitiously
 Specialized Leaves
 Window Leaves (Kalahari desert)
 Leaves buried in ground with only
a dime-sized tip exposed at the
surface
 With most of the leaf buried, it is
protected from dehydration
 Reproductive Leaves
 New plants at tips or notches
 Floral Leaves (Bracts)
 Found at base of flowers or flower
stalk and attract pollinators (e.g.
poinsettia)
Specialized Leaves
 Insect-Trapping Leaves
 Pitcher Plants
 Video: Private Life of Plants
 Sundews

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Companies Permission

Required for Reproduction or Display

Sarracenia purpurea
Specialized Leaves
 Insect-Trapping Leaves
 Venus’s Flytraps
 Video: Private Life of Plants
 Bladderworts
 Submerged or floating in
water
 Trap door to allow flow
of water (and insects)
into the bladder

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Companies Permission

Required for Reproduction or Display
Leaves: Overview
 Video
 Amazing Life of Plants: Leaves
Autumnal Changes in Leaf Colour
 Plastid Pigments
 Chlorophylls (green)
 Carotenoids
 Carotenes (yellow)
 Xanthophylls (pale yellow)
 Vacuolar Pigments (water soluble)
 Anthocyanins (reds and blues)
 Betacyanins (reds, e.g. Beet root)
 The green chlorophylls are usually found in higher
concentrations and during the season of active
growth they are able to mask the other pigments
Autumnal Changes in Leaf Colour
 Chlorophyll is not a very stable compound; bright sunlight
causes it to decompose
 To maintain the amount of chlorophyll in their leaves, plants
continuously synthesize it
 Leaves usually demonstrate a wide variety of colors as they
go through various stages of degeneration (e.g. as the
chlorophylls break down during the fall, the other colours
become apparent)
 The breakdown of chlorophyll is not completely understood,
however, it appears to be tied to the gradual reduction in day
length
 http://www.cnr.vt.edu/DENDRO/DENDROLOGY/stand.swf
Abscission
 Deciduous plants drop
their leaves seasonally
 Occurs as a result of
changes in an
abscission zone near the
base of the petiole of
each leaf
 Cells of the protective
layer become coated and
impregnated with
suberin (fatty substance)
 Leaf scar with bundle
scars mark stem
 Human and Ecological Relevance
of Leaves
 Review Stern:
 Landscaping
 Food (lettuce, spinach, chard, thyme,
basil, mints)
 Dyes (e.g. henna)
 Ropes and Twine (Agave (century
plant) for fibers)
 Drugs/Medicinal
 Tobacco
 Marijuana
 Cocaine
 Aloe vera
 Insecticides (e.g. Neem tree to control
insects, mites, etc)
 Waxes (e.g. carnauba)
Misc
 Mid-Term:
 Wednesday, Feb. 23rd, 8:30-10:30

 Reading: Stern, Chapter 7

Terms
 Leaf primorida  Microfibrils
 Guard cells  Palisade mesophyll
 Stomata  Spongy Mesophyll
 Transpiration  Bundle sheath
 Guttation  Veins (Vascular bundles)
 Hydathode  Shade leaves
 Simple and compound leaves  Tendrils
 Pinnately  Spines
 Palmately  Thorns
 Trichomes  Prickles
 Window leaves  Storage leaves
 Reproductive leaves  Flower-pot leaves
 Floral leaves  Insect-trapping leaves
 Carotenes  Carotenoids
 Xanthophylls  Anthocyanins
 Abscission  Betacyanins
 Protective layer  Separation layer