Subject: Apparel Manufacturing

Learning Objectives

The learning objectives of this unit are:

Understand the functions of different departments in the garment industry.

Describe the manufacturing process.
Identify the various equipment used in the garment industry.

3.1 Overview of Various Departments in the Garment Industry

Apparel production, also known as garment production is the process of converting fabric into
garments. The term apparel production is usually used when garments are manufactured in a
factory. Traditionally, apparel manufacturing factories have been divided into two sectors:
domestic and export. Based on the present apparel industry, garment manufacturing processes
are categorized as:

Pre-Production processes, Production processes and Post-production processes.

Pre-production process
This includes sampling, sourcing of raw materials, approvals and PP meetings.
Production process
This includes cutting and sewing.
Post-production process

This includes thread trimming, pressing, checking, folding, packing and shipment inspection.

The Pre-production Process

A factory produces bulk quantity of garments for a style or design at a time. Prior to the start of
production of an order, the factory needs to go through some activities known as pre-
production. The Pre-production process includes sampling, merchandising, sourcing of raw
material and production planning. Sampling is a process where the factory develops garment
samples according to a buyer's specified design. It is also known as the product development
stage.
Samples are required at various stages to get approval from a buyer on a particular design.
As per the development stages, samples have been termed as Proto sample, Fit sample, Size set
sample, Sales man sample, Production sample, Top of Production (TOP) sample and Shipment
sample.

Costing
A business is all about making profit. So, correct costing of a product before finalization of an
order is very important. Costing of garments is the cumulative cost of raw materials, direct
labour, as well as, direct and indirect overheads.

After developing samples or directly receiving a buyer’s sample the factory needs to send Freight
on Board (FOB) price of the garment. To decide the FOB of a garment the factory makes a cost
sheet including raw material cost, total of direct labour, cost of each process and factory
overheads.

Production Planning

After receiving the order, the factory plans for the requirement of raw material.
Raw materials include fabrics, sewing threads, packing materials, hang tags and other
accessories.

Factory Timelines

The factory plans timelines including, when to start cutting, when to submit pre-production
sample, when to finish sewing and finishing, the final inspection date and shipment date. In the
production planning stage, the job responsibilities for different processes are defined.

3.2 The Production Process

The production functions are: Fabric cutting, printing, embroidery, sewing, thread trimming,
washing, ironing, folding and packing.
1.Fabric Cutting
In this stage, fabrics are layered on a table layer by layer up to a certain height. Then, using a
cutting machine, the fabric is cut into garment shapes or patterns and separated from the layer.
Fabric layering is possible both by manual spreading and automated spreading. Cut parts are then
numbered, bundled and sent to the sewing room. Cutting can help save fabric, as well as add
value to the quality of a garment. The quality of the end product, (the garment) depends first, on
good cutting. Secondly, the main raw material of the garment represents about 70% of the total
cost of the garment. That is why, cutting is an important process.

2.Sewing or Stitching
Garment panels are stitched together by sewing machines in the sewing room.
In sewing, 2 Dimensional fabric patterns are converted to 3 Dimensional forms. An operator runs
the machine and uses sewing threads to join garment parts together.
Various types of sewing machines are available for sewing. These machines are selected
according to the seam and stitch requirement. In the apparel industry, traditionally, sewing
machines are laid in a row. Cut parts are fed at the start of the line, passed through the line and at
the end of the line a complete garment comes out.
Each machine is run by individual operators and an operator sews only one or two operations of
the garment. A line consists of sewing operators and helpers to feed them with cut parts, thread
and other trims, a quality checker and one fully or partially devoted supervisor.

3.Thread Trimming
After stitching, all hanging threads are cut with a hand trimmer. This can also be done using
Auto thread trimming machines. All loose threads inside a garment are also removed. Garments
without any loose thread and a long tail are basically quality requirements.

4.Washing
Washing is done when a buyer wants washing or special finishes to the garments. For light
colour garments, washing is carried out to remove dirt and stains.

5.Finishing
Generally, this process includes checking of the garment, measurement checking, ironing, and
spotting. After sewing of the garments, all pieces are checked by the quality checker to ensure
that garments have been made as per buyer quality standards.
Checking is normally done for visual appearance and measurements. Spotting is required to
remove stains in the pieces. Special chemicals, (solvents) are used to remove various kinds of oil
stains, marks and hard stains. Each garment is then ironed with a press to remove creases.

6.Packing and Folding

Each pressed garment is now folded with tissue or cardboard. Folding varies from product to
product and also from buyer to buyer. Hang tags, special tags and price stickers are attached with
plastic Kimble or threads. Folded and tagged garments are then packed into poly bags. During
packing, garments are randomly checked by internal quality controllers to ensure that only
quality goods are being packed.

3.3 Other Processes

In current fashion trends very few garments are made without additional processes such as
printing, garment dyeing and special washing. Other value added processes include embroidery
and adda work, (hand embroidery with lot of bead work).

Final Inspection and Dispatch

Once the garments are packed (also known as shipment), quality inspection of the garments is
carried out by the buyer’s Quality Assurance (QA) department before dispatching. A third party
quality auditor may also be hired to do this final inspection. If the packed goods meet the buyer’s
quality standards, the shipment is accepted by the buyer. The factory then dispatches the goods
to the buyer.

3.4 Introduction to Manufacturing Processes

Departments such as Cutting, Sewing and Finishing are the primary departments of a garment
factory. The name of the departments itself explains its main functions.
Within each department, there are a number of steps through which raw materials are passed to
make a finished and packed garment. These steps or sub-processes may vary from product to
product.

1.The Cutting Department

The main role of a cutting department is to cut garment components from fabric rolls or fabric as
per style specifications. The cut components are then sent to the sewing department in bundles.
A cutting department of a garment manufacturing unit includes the following sub-processes:
Fabric relaxation, fabric spreading and layering on a cutting table, marker making, cutting –
These are of three types : manual cutting (using scissors), machine cutting, and automatic
cutting, numbering of garment plies, shorting and bundling, inspection of cut components,
shorting of printing and embroidery panels, re-cutting of panels, fusing garment components.

2.The Sewing Department

The Sewing department is the heart of a manufacturing unit. Cut components are assembled in
the sewing department in an assembly line. The list of sub-processes that are done in the sewing
department includes: Making garment parts, sewing the full garment, making garment
accessories such as dori, tabs and cords, checking of stitched garments, alteration work of
defective garments. The objectives of sewing are the construction of seams, which combine the
required standards of appearance and performance with an appropriate level of economy in
production.

Factors of Selection
Assuming that the fabric is sewable and suitable for garments, the achievement, at an economical
level, of the various requirements of appearance and performance of sewn seams, both initially
and during use, is the result of the selection of five factors during manufacturing. They are: The
seam type, the stitch type, the sewing machine feeding mechanism, which moves the fabric and
enables a succession of stitches to be formed, the needle, which inserts the thread into the fabric,
the thread which forms the stitch, which either holds the fabric together, neatens it or decorates
it. These factors are closely interrelated to each other and will be discussed in this course with a
view to understand the sewing process in detail.
3.5 U.S Federal Standards 751a (Seams and Stitches)
A stitch, which is the elementary basis of sewing, can be formed without fabric, within fabric or
through or on fabric. For the purpose of standardization of stitches and seam formations, the U.S.
government developed a guide that defines stitches and seams in current use. This guide is
known as the United States, Federal Stitches and Seams Specifications (Federal Standard 751a).

Federal Standard 751a makes the following distinctions by defining these terms.
A Seam
A Seam is a joint consisting of a sequence of stitches uniting two or more pieces of material(s)
and is used for assembling parts in the production of sewn items.

A Stitch
A Stitch is one unit of conformation of thread resulting from repeatedly passing a strand or
strands and / or loop or loops of thread into or through a material at uniformly spaced intervals to
form a series of stitches.

A Stitching
A Stitching consists of a sequence of stitches for finishing an edge or for ornamental purposes or
both in preparing parts for assembling.

Seams
Seams are formed by sewing two or more pieces of fabric together. However, the basis of seam
classification is the position of the pieces relative to each other. Many variations in fabric
position and treatment account for the many different types of seams in each classification.

The choice of seam types is determined by aesthetic standards, strength, durability, comfort in
wear and convenience in assembly in relation to the machinery available and cost. Certain seam
types are more appropriate for some products and fabrics than others. Seam length and the
degree of curvature of a seam are also important in choosing seam types. The best seam type is
one that yields the desired performance at the lowest cost. A seam has three dimensions, length,
width, and depth.

Seam Length
Seam length is the total distance covered by a continuous series of stitches, such as a side seam
or shoulder seam.

Seam Width

Seam width considerations are width of a seam allowance, the seam heading of a lapped or a top
stitched seam, and the width of a line of stitches relative to the seam. A seam allowance is
measured from the cut edge of the fabric to the main line of stitches.
Seam Depth

Seam depth is the thickness or compressibility (flatness) of a seam.

Seam Classes
The Federal Standard 751a, which is the basis of stitch classes identifies four seam classes and
two stitching classes. They are: The Superimposed Seam, The Lapped Seam, The Bound Seam
and The Flat Seam. Each class includes many seam types.

The Superimposed Seam (SS)

The Superimposed Seam (SS) class is formed by joining two or more pieces of fabric, usually
with the seam allowance edges even and on one piece superimposed over the second. These can
be sewn with a lock stitch, chain stitch, overedge stitch , or safety stitch.

The Lapped Seam (LS)

The Lapped Seam (LS) class is defined as two or more pieces of fabric joined by overlapping at
the needle. This is the largest seam class, including 101 different seam types, with a great deal of
variety as to where a seam is lapped and how it is lapped.
These seams are used to attach the front band to shirts, setting pockets, side seams of quality
dress shirts, side seam or inseam of jeans, and so on. Lapped seams may be stitched with a
lockstitch or a chain stitch, but not an overedge stitch.

The Bound Seam (BS)

The Bound Seam (BS) Class requires a separate piece of fabric that encompasses the edge of one
or more pieces of the garment. These seams are used to finish plain necklines, edges of short
sleeves on some styles of T-shirts, and so on. The Bound seam may be sewn with a lock stitch,
chain stitch, or cover stitch. They should never be sewn with an edge stitch as the knife will cut
off the binding.
The Flat Seam (FS)

The Flat Seam (FS) class is the smallest class with only six different types. The formation of this
seam occurs with the butting together of two pieces of fabric, but not overlapping them. The
stitches extend across the seam, holding both pieces together and covering the seam on one or
both sides. Flat seams are constructed to remain flat through care and wear.

Seam Classes (As Per Stitching)

The two stitching classes are ornamental stitching and edge finishing.

The finishing of either of these classes is performed on a single piece of fabric. The fabric may
be folded in a variety of ways. This ensures that the stitching is through more than one thickness,
but still remains a single piece of fabric.

Ornamental Stitching (OS)

It may be used on a single ply for decorative purposes. It can be done anywhere on the garment
except the edge. The decorative stitching may be used on jeans pockets, embroidered logos and
pin tucks.

Edge Finishing (EF)

It is stitching that encompasses the cut edge or provides a finish for a single ply of fabric with a
folded edge configuration. Stitches from any of the classes may be used, depending on the
type of fold and placement of stitching.
Stitch Classification

Stitches are classified on the basis of the structure of the stitch and method of formation. Stitch
properties such as size, balance and consistency determine stitch quality, performance and
appropriateness for end use. Properties of a stitch that relates to aesthetics and performance are
size, tension and consistency.

The Stitch Types

Stitches are classified based on the structure of the stitch and method of formation. Stitch size
has three dimensions: length, width and depth.

Stitch Length
Stitch length is specified as the number of stitches per inch (SPI) and can be an indicator of
quality. Stitch length is determined by the amount of fabric that is advanced under the needle
between penetrations.

High SPI means short stitches, while low SPI means long stitches. Long stitches are usually less
durable and are considered low quality as they are subjected to more abrasion and are likely to
snag.

Stitch Width

Stitch width refers to the horizontal span (bight) covered in the formation of one stitch or single
line of stitching. Stitches that have width dimensions require multiple needles or lateral
movement of thread carriers such as needle bars, loopers or spreaders.

Stitch Depth

Stitch depth is the distance between the upper and lower surface of the stitch. For example, the
depth of the blind stitch determines the amount of penetration by a curved needle.

Thread Tension

Thread tension affects stitch formation in two ways. Thread tension involves the balance of force
on the threads that form the stitch, and the degree of compression on the fabric created by the
threads as a stitch is formed. Tension ensures a uniform supply of thread and determines how
well stitches conform to the standard formation. Too much tension causes the seam to pucker and
can cause uneven stitches, unbalanced stitches, weakened thread, and damaged fabric. Too little
tension might result in loose or skipped stitches, grinning or weak seams.

Stitch Consistency

The uniformity with which each stitch is formed, in a row of stitches. Each stitch should be
exactly like the previous one regardless of curves, corners or varying thickness of the fabric.

A Stitch
It can be defined as ‘one unit of conformation resulting from one or more strands or loops of
thread intralooping, interlooping, or passing through material’.

6. The Stitch Classes

The six classes of stitches as given in Federal Standard 751a are:

 Class 100 chain stitches.

 Class 200 stitches originating as hand stitches.
 Class 300 lock stitches.
 Class 400 multi thread chain stitches.
 Class 500 over edge stitches, and
 Class 600 covering chain stitches.

Class 100 Chain Stitches

The Chain Stitch class 100 includes stitch types 101, 102, 103, 104 and 105. It is formed with
one or more needle threads that form a loop on the underside of the fabric. It has no lower thread.
Stitch Class 101
Type 101 is one of the simplest of all stitch types, formed from a single thread. It can be easily
removed, and it is used for basting operations in tailored menswear and women’s wear.

It can only be used where the marks of needle penetration close up afterwards in pressing. A
basting operation is a temporary stitch, allowing accurate placement of permanent stitches. It is
used in positions such as edges, flaps and collars.

The Blind Stitch Version, 103

The Blind Stitch Version, 103, utilises a curved needle in order to, successively penetrate
partially into the fabric, and then into the hem edge, while showing minimally or not at all on the
right side of the garment.

Class 200 Stitches

Class 200 Stitches consists of hand formation of stitches done by hand with the exception of 205,
which simulates a hand running stitch, but is formed by a special machine. Typical types of
Class 200 stitches are basting stitches and back stitches.

Class 300 Lock Stitches

The Lock Stitch Class 300 is the most commonly used and is easiest to understand. A Lock stitch
machine requires 2 threads to form a stitch, a needle thread that feeds from the top and a lower
thread that feeds from a bobbin. A rotary hook or shuttle catches the needle thread loop as it
passes around the bobbin and interlocks the two threads. If a lock stitch thread breaks, the two
threads used to form the stitch lock and the whole line of stitches won’t unravel. Lock stitch
machines are versatile and can be used for a variety of operations. It is also the only stitch
formation that can be backstitched.
A lock stitch machine is a good choice for a small manufacturer that produces fashion goods. A
complete garment can be sewn on a lock stitch machine. Also, if versatility is needed, a lock
stitch is a good choice but if speed and efficiency are the priorities, it may not be the right
selection. Lock stitch machines are slower than other classes of industrial machines. Operating
speeds of these machines range from 3000 to 5000 revolutions per minute, while other machines
can operate at 9000 rpm or more. On short seams, an operator would not be able to reach
maximum speed; therefore, it is recommended to be used on small parts, while faster stitch types
should be used for larger parts and longer seams. Some of the most common type of stitches in
this class are: Stitch Type 301 and Stitch Type 304.

Stitch Type 301

The 301 is referred to as a plain stitch or a straight stitch. It is the stitch type performed by the
standard home sewing machine. Equal amount of needle and bobbin threads are used, and upper
and lower threads interlocks in the center of the fabric. The 301 stitch uses the least amount of
thread and produces the flattest stitch.
It is the tightest and most secured stitch among all stitch types. Because, this stitch formation is
the same on both sides of the seams, it is reversible and used extensively for top stitching,
especially along collars, cuff edges, and fronts of jackets. It is a poor choice in areas that need to
stretch as it has least amount of elongation potential. The 301 is inappropriate to attach elastic, or
sew knit or bias seams that are expected to stretch.

Stitch Type 304

Type 304 is the traditional zigzag stitch that is used to sew appliques, attach lace on lingerie, and
produce faggotting. Other types of zigzag lock stitches are class 308 and 315, which form a
longer and a wider zigzag by using several stitches before changing direction. Faggotting is a
decoration stitch used to connect two pieces of fabric, but allowing space between the pieces. It
provides elongation, is smooth and will not ravel out.

Class 400 Multi-Thread Chain Stitches

The 400 class is the second most frequently used stitch type. This multi thread chain stitch
requires one or more needle threads that form loops as they pass through the fabric and interloop
with the looper thread on the underside. All of this feeds continuously from the cones. The 400
class stitch requires an upper and a lower thread and uses a looper to carry the lower thread and
form a thread loop on the underside of the fabric. Machines producing 400 class stitch, do not
back tack, although, stitches can be condensed to secure the ends of the threads.

Types of Class 400 Chain Stitches

The most common stitch types in this class Stitch are:

The 401 or two thread chain stitch. Stitch type 402 or cording stitch.
Stitch type 404.
Stitch type 406 & 407.

The 401 or Two Thread Chain Stitch

It is also called double locked chain stitch. Its appearance is the same as the 101 stitch with a flat
straight thread formation similar to a lock stitch on the face of the fabric and a loop on the
underside. The 401 stitch can be unraveled, but only if the looper thread is pulled in the direction
the stitches were formed. The 401 stitch machines are capable of operating at very high speeds.
These chain stitch machines often use multiple needles to produce parallel rows of stitching.
The loop formation of the chain stitch elongates when extended; thus it is used for seams that
require elasticity, such as setting sleeves and attaching elastic. This stitch type is also well suited
to automated sewing equipment, such as automatic seamers.

Stitch Type 402 or Cording Stitch

Stitch Type 402 or Cording Stitch is used primarily for stitching permanent creases. It uses two
needle threads that produce two parallel rows of stitching on the face of the fabric. A looper
thread travels between the two needle threads on the back of the fabric creating a ridge or crease
between the needle threads on the face. This type of stitching can be found on sportswear where
a crease needs to be maintained or on the back of gloves.

Stitch Type 404

Stitch Type 404 stitch is similar in appearance to a 304 stitch, in the sense, that it is also a zigzag
stitch, except the difference that it is formed as a chain stitch and contains loops on one side.
Stitch Type 406

Stitch Type 406 are known as bottom cover stitches. They are used to cover seam or unfinished
edges on the inside of garments and to keep them flat. They appear as 2 or 3 rows of parallel
“lock stitching” on the face of the fabric while a looper thread connects the rows on the back.
The 406 stitch uses 2 needle threads and 1 looper thread like a 402 except that it does not ridge
up. Stitch type 406 is used to produce flat, comfortable seams on necklines of t-shirts bottom
felling of t-shirts, or on binding of men’s briefs.

Stitch Type 407

Stitch type 407 is very much similar to 406 stitch except that it uses three needle threads and has
even more stretch. The primary use of 407 stitch is to attach elastic to undergarments, which
require maximum stretch.

Class 500 over Edge Stitches

The stitch types in this class are formed with one or more groups of threads. These are
characterized by loops from at least one group of threads passing around the edge of the material.
The loops form a narrow band of stitching along the edge of the fabric, with threads intersecting
at the edge. This prevents the fabric from fraying. These stitches have high elasticity, do not
unravel easily, and a trimming knife on the machine ensures a neat edge prior to sewing. They
are often called overedge, overcast, overlock, serge or merrow. Overedge machines, must have
three stitch forming devices, a needle to carry the thread through the fabric, a looper or spreader
to carry the thread from the needle to the edge of material on the bottom, and a looper or
spreader to carry thread up and over the edge of the material on the top. The various stitch types
use various combinations of these three devices.

The odd numbered stitch types 501, 503, 505 and 521 are known as “break open” stitches,
because they act similar to the spiral back of a notebook.

The fabric is held tight together, but not secure along the inner edge of the stitching. This allows
the stitch to break open. These stitches are best used for edge finishes and hem. These stitches
are characterized by a loose thread on the bottom, that is pulled to the edge of the fabric, where it
interloops the looper thread. This creates a purl stitch or interlooping of thread that wraps and
protects the edge of the fabric. The even numbered stitch types in this class – 502, 504, 512 and
514 – have a much tighter needle thread that holds the two layers of fabric together at the actual
seam line. These stitches do not “grin through” or become exposed between the layers of fabric.
These stitches also have a much smoother appearance and are more durable.

Serging
Serging is the process of finishing a single ply of fabric to prevent ravelling. This is often one of
the first processes in sewing a garment, if another edge finish is not to be given later in
production.

Edge Stitches
Types 503, 504 and 505 stitch are overedge stitch types that are used for serging.

Type 502

Stitch type 202 are formed by two threads, a needle and looper thread. It is a tight stitch that is
used primarily for seaming the outer edge of bags.

Type 503

Type 503 is also formed by two threads, a needle and looper thread. It is used for blind hemming
and serging. It is used mainly for hems in T-shirts and other kit garments and serging seams of
dress slacks, because the two-thread construction is less likely to press through the garment.
Type 504 & 505

Stitch type 504 and 505 are three thread overedge stitches that are formed with one needle thread
and two looper threads. They require more thread in the formation, but they also have more
stretch. Type 504 is a highly extensible, but secure stitch that makes an excellent seam for knit
garments, such as seams of cut and sewn sweaters. It is the most common of 500 class.

Mock Safety Stitches

Stitch types 512 and 514 are sometimes called mock safety stitches. They are four thread
overedge stitches that are formed with two needle threads and two looper threads. Type 514
stitch is stronger and more elastic than 512 stitch, but both may be used for seaming knits and
wovens. However, 514 stitch makes a wider seam and may be desirable for some knit garments.
Stitch types 515, 516, and 519 are a combination of an overedge stitch and a 401 chain stitch.

These types are called safety stitches, because the chain stitch that closes the seam is backed by
another row of tight overedge stitches. Both rows of stitches are formed at the same time. This
type of seaming is widely used by manufacturers of shirts, jackets, blouses and jeans.
Class 600 Covering Chain Stitches
The cover stitch or 600 class stitch, often called a flat lock or a flat seam stitch, is an advanced
version of the 400 class stitch and is used primarily on knits and lingerie. These stitches, referred
to as top and bottom cover stitches, are commonly used to cover both sides of the seam with
thread.

Threads must be chained off and be crossed by another seam. This stitch class uses a lot of
thread, but provides excellent top and bottom cover and flat seams.

Stitches in this class are most complex of all and may have up to nine threads in total including
four needle threads. Machines producing the 600 class stitch are extremely fast and efficient,
operating at 9000 rpms.

The stitch is formed by two or more needle loops passing through the material, interlooping on
the underside and interlocking on the upper side. A spreader or cover thread finger carries the
cover thread across the surface of the fabric between the needles.

Stitch Types 602, 605 And 607

Type 602

Cover stitch 602 is a very strong and elastic stitch used extensively by manufacturers of knit
garments to cover raw edges and prevent raveling.
Class 602 is a 4-thread stitch with 2 needle threads, 1 looper thread, and 1 top covering thread.
Type 605

Cover stitch 605 is also a very strong and elastic stitch used extensively by manufacturers of knit
garments to cover raw edges and prevent raveling.
Class 605 is similar to the 602 stitch but with 3 needle threads, 1 looper thread, and 1 top
covering thread.
Type 607

The flat seaming stitch, 607, trims and seams simultaneously. It is a 9-thread stitch with 4 needle
threads, 4 looper threads, and 1 top covering thread.

Thread Consumption for Stitches

We can estimate the quantity of thread which will be consumed in manufacturing a certain style
of garment, either by measuring the seam lengths sewn in each stitch type and calculating the
total amount from published ratios of thread usage, or by unpicking and measuring the thread
used in the sample garment. The latter is more accurate, because it allows for fabric thickness
and stitch density.
3.7 Net Thread Consumption Ratios

Stitch type Thread usage, in cm,

per cm of seam

301 lock stitch 2.5

101 chain stitch 4.0
401 2-thread chain stitch 5.5
504 3-thread overedge stitch 14.0
512 4-thread overedge 18.0
(401. 504) safety stitch 20.0
606 flatlock 32.0

3.8 The Post-production Process

Washing

Garment washing is normally done after stitching. According to fashion trends and consumer
demands, buyers ask for garment washing. For washing, apparel buyers mention exactly what
types of washing they need for the order. For example, a buyer - Tom Tailor asked for washes
such as – Vintage wash, Cloud wash, softener wash or Acid wash. Each wash has a different type
of appearance on the fabric surface. Wash types mainly depends on the product types. For denim
products, heavy enzyme is required, whereas for knitted Tee light softener wash may be suitable.
The primary objectives of washing garments is to remove starch that was applied during fabric
manufacturing, soften the garment hand feel and improve bulkiness, remove dirt, spots and oil
stains that accumulate on the garment during the manufacturing process, remove chemicals used
during the printing and embroidery process, fulfill customer demand, ensure that clothes can be
worn directly after purchasing, give a faded look or any other colour tinted look to the garment
and stabilise garment shrinkage and dimensional instability.
Heavy Enzyme or Vintage Wash
Vintage means old look. To get an old or used appearance, garments are washed inside a
washing machine with enzymes. Fleece sweatshirts are washed with heavy enzyme.

Cloud Wash
Cloud wash gives white patches on the garment surface making it appear like clouds in the sky.

Stone Wash
To get a faded look on the garment surface white stones with enzymes are used during washing.
During washing, the fabric comes in contact with stones and the rubbing effect causes colour to
fade. Stone wash is generally used for washing denim products.

Acid Wash
For acid wash, the base colour of the garment is removed by spraying acid on the specified areas.

The Finishing Department

In the Finishing department, garments are nicely pressed and packed into poly bags. A finishing
department has the following sub-processes. Washing of garment, (Some factories may have
separate washing department), buttoning and buttonholing, trimming threads, checking of
washed or unwashed garments, removing stains, ironing or pressing, final checking of garments
after ironing, mending or repair work, tagging, folding and packing.

Garment manufacturing includes a number of processes, from receiving orders to dispatching of

the finished garments. A process flow chart helps to understand how raw materials are moved
from one process to another process, until raw materials are transformed into the desired product,
namely the garments. It is important to note that a process flow chart of the garment
manufacturing processes varies based on manufacturing facility and product types. Some
companies complete the whole process in a single plant, while others outsource production jobs
and other auxiliary processes.

Finishing
Finishing is the last step of the garment production. All mistakes made during the process accrue
and can become a huge problem at this stage. The Quality Department also has a huge potential
to improve products, and thus requires special attention. In almost every factory surveyed, it has
been proven that the costs involved in this department are excessive. It is vital that this
department is given importance, since there is a great potential to make financial savings. The
material here illustrates the priorities of the finishing and quality departments.

Surveys have shown that the time taken to finish garments is surprisingly high. Some companies
examine the garment as many as 5 times, and the number of repairs is excessive. Further,
Finishing departments are over-staffed in most of the factories studied. This is obviously driven
by the fear of rejection of orders or re-works. Work content can be reduced by installing a proper
work control system and a culture for quality production.

Surveys have shown that the layout and workflow in garment factories was generally poor and
disorganized. Not one of the finishing departments have adequate systems of control. Rather, the
emphasis is only directed to delivery and not productivity. This is understandable in the present
circumstances, but must be re-thought since it is excessively expensive.

Studies have found, that finishing times are excessive in almost every company; with the average
finishing time per garment varying from 11.2 minutes to 57.6 minutes. It has also been found
that none of the finishing departments use bundle systems for control, nor do any of them have
any form of scientific performance measuring techniques. There are no monitoring controls
except to record the number of repairs.

3.9 Overview of Equipment

The equipments used in the apparel manufacturing industry are the cutting, sewing and finishing
machines.

Notcher

Many garments require notches to be cut into the edges of them to enable alignment during
sewing with other garment parts. Specialized notching equipment provides greater accuracy
because a guide lines up the notcher with the cut edge. This gives a consistent depth of notch at a
consistent right angle to the edge.

Drills and Thread Markers

Where reference marks are needed away from the edge of a garment part, such as for the position
of the pockets, darts and similar features, a hole is often drilled through all the plies of fabric in
the lay. The drill mounting includes a motor, a base plate with a hole to allow the drill to pass
through, and a spirit level to ensure that the base is horizontal and the drill vertical.

On many fabrics, the drill is used cold and the hole remains visible until the sewing operator
comes to use it. On looser weave fabrics, where the hole may close up, a hot drill is used which
will slightly scorch or fuse the edges of the hole.
A hypodermic drill may be used which leaves a small deposit of paint on each ply of fabric. If it
is important that no mark remains on the fabric, a long thread may be passed through the lay
which is then cut with a pair of scissors between each ply, leaving a few centimeters visible on
each garment panel. All drill holes must eventually be concealed, by the construction of the
garment.
Straight Knife
A straight knife is used where the quantities for cutting do not justify purchase of a computer-
controlled cutter. The elements of a straight knife consist of a base plate, usually on rollers for
ease of movement, an upright or a standard carrying a straight, vertical blade with varying edge
characteristics and an electric motor above it, a handle for the cutter to direct the blade, and a
sharpening device. The base plate on its rollers slides under the glazed paper which is spread
below the bottom ply of fabric in a lay.
Normally, available blade heights vary from 10 cm to 33 cm. Usually, available strokes vary
from 2.5 cm to 4.5 cm. The greater the blade movement, the faster the blade cuts the fabric. This
enables the operator to rapidly and easily increase production.
The straight knife is a common means of cutting lays in conventional cutting rooms because it is
versatile, portable, cheaper than a band knife, more accurate on curves than a round knife and
relatively reliable and easy to maintain. Even if a band knife is used for the main cutting
operation, a straight knife would be used to separate the lay into sections for easier handling.

Band Knife
A band knife comprises a series of three or more pulleys, powered by an electric motor, with a
continuously rotating steel blade mounted on them. One edge of the blade is sharpened. The
band knife passes through a slot in the cutting table in a fixed position and the section of the lay
to be cut is moved past it. Band knives are used when a higher standard of cutting accuracy is
required than can be obtained with a straight knife. The pieces that are to be cut, are first cut on a
block, and then cut exactly on a band knife.

Round Knife
The elements of a round knife are a base plate, above which is mounted an electric motor, a
handle for the cutter to direct the blade and a circular blade rotating so that the leading edge cuts
downwards into the fabric. Blade diameters vary from 6 cm to 20 cm. Round knives are not
suitable for cutting curved lines in high lays because the blade does not strike all the plies
simultaneously at the same point as a vertical point does. Therefore, a round knife is used only
for straight lines or lower lays of relatively few plies.

Computer Controlled Cutting Knives

This method provides the most accurate possible cutting and at high speeds.
To keep the larger systems fully occupied they are frequently used in a central cutting facility
that supplies a number of separate sewing factories. A typical computer cutting system has a
table with a cutting surface consisting of nylon bristles that support the fabric lays, but are
flexible enough to permit penetration and movement of the knife blade, which is supported only
at the top. The bristles also allow the passage of air through the table to create a vacuum,
reducing the height of the lay and holding it in place. The carriage supporting the cutting head
has two synchronised servomotors, which drive it on tracks on the edges of the table. The cutting
head contains a knife, automatic sharpener and a servo motor which rotates the knife to position
it at a tangent to the line of cut on curves. A sheet of airtight polyethylene covers the top of the
lay, which assists the creation of a vacuum and allows significant compression of the lay.
The control cabinet houses the computer and the electrical components required to drive the
cutter, its carriage and the vacuum motor. The spreader spreads the lay on a conventional cutting
table equipped with air floatation. Paper is spread below the bottom ply, so that the lay can be
moved onto the cutting table without distortion and so that the bottom plies are supported during
the cutting operation. This paper is perforated to enable the vacuum on the cutting table to
operate to compress the lay. The cutting table does not need to be as long as the lay and its bristle
surface can consist of a conveyer which assists in the transfer of the lay, in sections, from the
spreading table and the cut work onto the bundling tables.

Die Cutting
Die cutting involves pressing of a rigid blade through the layed fabric.
The die (called a clicker in the shoe industry) is a knife in the shape of the pattern periphery,
including notches. Freestanding dies generally fall into two categories. They can be of strip steel,
manufactured by bending the strip to the shape required and welding the joint. These cannot be
sharpened, and must be replaced when worn.
Alternatively, they can be heavier gauge, forged dies which can be re-sharpened, but which are
five times the price of strip steel. They provide a high standard of accuracy of cutting, but
because of the cost of the dies, they are only appropriate to situations where large quantities of
the same pattern are to be cut. Die cutting also offers much faster cutting than knife cutting for
the same depth of cut. It is proportionally more economic for small parts, which have a greater
periphery in relation to their area.

Sewing Equipment
There are four main types of industrial sewing machines. The differentiation between them is
based on the design of the arm and needle post. These four types are: Flatbed, Cylinder-bed,
Post-bed and Off-the-arm.

Flatbed
These are the most common type and these machines resemble traditional sewing machines in
that the arm and needle extend to the flat base of the machine. Workers typically use this
machine for sewing flat pieces of fabric together.

Cylinder-bed
These machines feature a narrow, horizontal column as opposed to a flat base. This allows fabric
to pass around and under the column. The diameter of the cylinder-bed varies from 5 cm to 16
cm. Workers employ the cylinder-bed machine for sewing cylindrical pieces such as cuffs, but it
is also useful for bulky items such as saddles and shoes.
Post-bed
These machines feature bobbins, feed dogs and / or loopers in a vertical column that rises above
the flat base of the machine. The height of this column ranges from 10 cm to 45 cm. The post-
bed machine is used in applications that make access to the sewing area difficult, such as
attaching emblems, making boots and gloves.

Feed-Off-the-arm
They are the least common machines and require workers to feed material along the axis of a
horizontal column. The design limits the length of the seam sewn to the length of the column, but
is useful for applications such as sleeve and shoulder seams.

Kinds of Feed Mechanisms

The main types of feed mechanisms are: Drop feed, Needle feed, Walking foot, Puller feed and
Manual feed.

Drop feed
The feed mechanism lies below the machine's sewing surface. This is probably the most common
feed type.

Needle feed
The needle itself acts as the feed mechanism, which minimizes slippage and allows workers to
sew multiple layers of fabric.

Walking foot
The immobile presser foot is replaced with a foot that moves with the feed. This allows easier
performance on thick, spongy or cushioned materials.

Puller feed
The machine grips and pulls straight-seemed material as it is sewn. It can perform on large,
heavy-duty items such as canvas tents.

Manual feed
The feed is controlled entirely by the worker, who can do delicate, personal work such as shoe
repair, embroidery and quilting.
On industrial sewing machines, it is sometimes necessary to remove the feed dogs to obtain a
manual feed.

Application of an Industrial Sewing Machine

The application of an industrial sewing mac hine is also an important factor to consider. For
example, some machines come with an automatic pocket setter, while others include pattern
programmability or electronic eyelet buttonholers. Furthermore, the strength and design of the
machine needs to complement the type of material you will be using.

Industrial Sewing Machines

Industrial sewing machines are used for different purposes.

Higher quality machines - medium to heavy materials, such as denim.

Base level industrial machines - lighter materials, such as cotton.

A particular machine’s stitch type should also be noted prior to making a purchase. There are
several dozen distinct types of stitches, each requiring between one and seven threads. Plain
stitches are the most commonly used stitches in industrial sewing and include loc, chain,
overlock and cover stitch. Yet another important feature to look into is the size and speed of the
industrial sewing machine. Expensive machines will be able to sew more stitches per minute.
Larger machines provide a larger clearance area under the foot and bigger bed size. You will
need to ensure that the size and speed of the machine you ultimately purchase will adequately
meet your needs and expectations.

Overhead Rail
Much like any other industry, technological advances, globalization and changing business
practices are affecting the apparel industry, shifting the emphasis to quick decision making
through tools such as real time data monitoring of the manufacturing floor.

Progressive Bundle Unit

Traditionally, bundle cards were used in Progressive Bundle Unit (PBU) systems to track
movement of bundles in the line and the integration of bar-codes in bundle tags facilitated
tracking of components and finished pieces in sewing line.

The Overhead Material Handling System

The Overhead Material Handling System (OMHS) in Unit Production System (UPS) made
significant progress in integrating the bar code scanner or RFID scanner to monitor the progress
of each hanger that is tracking of each piece thereof. While brands like Eton, INA, and Smart
MRT popularized the adoption of OMHS, global mechanization of material handling in PBU
system still lags behind.

Work–aids and Attachments

To facilitate workers to do their jobs efficiently a number of readymade and customized work
aids and equipment are being used in the garment industry. Work aids are specially designed for
activities such as material handling and folding. We will now review some of the basic work aids
that are used in the shirt-making factory such as Raw material warehouse, cutting department,
sewing floor and finishing department. Raw Material Warehouse uses a Fabric trolley and a
Fabric roll fork lift. The Cutting Department uses a Fabric roll Stand, both movable and fixed,
Layer weight, Cloth Clamp, Bakers Trolley, Waste disposal trolley and Bins. The Sewing Room
uses a Disposal basket, Sewing machine table extension, Hunch back, Single slopping table,
Profile for collar and cuff run stitch as well as various types of Attachments, folders, hemmers
and guides. The Finishing Department uses a Wire mesh WIP trolley, Z-stands, Bins, Hanger
stand, Hanger trolley and Carton transfer trolley.

3.10 Conclusion
To summarize, in this unit, you have received an overview of the various departments in the
Garment Industry and been introduced to the cutting, sewing and finishing processes. You have
also been given an overview of various equipment including cutting, sewing and finishing
machines.