Introduction to Computer

Networks
S.S. Satapathy
 Introduction
- Computer Network
- Collection of Computer Systems interconnected by
communication channels

H H

H H

H
H
Subnet
H
H
H H
- Switch
H - Host
 Network Types
• Based on the scope and size the networks
are classified as:
– WAN – Satellite, Long distance optical
fiber, leased line based networks spread
across cities, states or countries.
– MAN – Spread over an area with a radius
of up to several tens of km.
• Wi Max, Cable based networks.
– LAN – Confined within a hall, building or
a campus.
• Ethernet, Wi Fi.
– PAN/ BAN – Confined within a room.
• Bluetooth
Topology
 Network Topology
• A network's topology is the layout of the
cables and devices that connect the nodes.
• The four most common network topologies
are:
– Bus. Each node is connected in series along a
single conduit.
– Star. All nodes are connected to a central hub.
– Ring. Nodes are connected in a circular chain,
with the conduit beginning and ending at the
same computer.
– Mesh. Each node has a separate connection to
every other node.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

FULLY PARTIALLY
CONNECTED CONNECTED

RING STAR BUS TREE

Switching Techniques
 Switching Techniques
• Circuit Switching
• Packet Switching
– Virtual Circuit
– Datagram
Simple Switched Network
 Circuit Switching
• Dedicated communication path between two stations
• Three phases
– Establish
– Transfer
– Disconnect
• Must have switching capacity and channel capacity to establish
connection
• Must have intelligence to work out routing
• Inefficient
– Channel capacity dedicated for duration of connection
– If no data, capacity wasted
• Set up (connection) takes time
• Once connected, transfer is transparent
• Developed for voice traffic (phone)
 Packet Switching
• Data transmitted in small packets
containing
– user data &
– some control info
• Routing (addressing) info
• Packets are received, stored briefly
(buffered) and past on to the next node
– Store and forward
Use of Packets
 Advantages
• Line efficiency
– Single node to node link can be shared by many
packets over time
– Packets queued and transmitted as fast as possible
• Data rate conversion
– Each station connects to the local node at its own
speed
– Nodes buffer data if required to equalize rates
• Packets are accepted even when network is busy
– Delivery may slow down
• Priorities can be used
 Datagram
• Each packet treated
independently
• Packets can take any
practical route
• Packets may arrive
out of order
• Packets may go
missing
• Up to receiver to re-
order packets and
recover from missing
packets
 VirtualCircuit
• Preplanned route
established before any
packets sent
• Call request and call
accept packets establish
connection (handshake)
• Each packet contains a
virtual circuit identifier
instead of destination
address
• No routing decisions
required for each packet
• Clear request to drop
circuit
• Not a dedicated path
 Virtual Circuits v Datagram
• Virtual circuits
– Network can provide sequencing and error
control
– Packets are forwarded more quickly
• No routing decisions to make
– Less reliable
• Loss of a node looses all circuits through that node
• Datagram
– No call setup phase
• Better if few packets
– More flexible
• Routing can be used to avoid congested parts of the
network
Packet Size
Multiple Access Methods
 Multiple Access Methods

Three major types:

– Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
– Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
– Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
• Frequency hopping (FH-CDMA)
• Direct sequence (DS-CDMA)
 Frequency-Time Plane

Frequency

Partition of signal
space into time slots
and frequency bands

Time
 FDMA
Frequency

Different users
transmit at different
frequency bands
simultaneously.

Time
Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA)
• The spectrum of each link (forward or reverse) is
further divided into frequency bands
• Each station assigned fixed frequency band
frequency bands

idle

idle
idle
 TDMA
Frequency

Different users
transmit at different
time slots.
Each user occupy the
whole freq. spectrum.

Time
 Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA)
• The mobile users access the channel in round-
robin fashion.
• Each station gets one slot in each round.

Slots 2, 5 and 6 are idle

 FDMA/TDMA, example GSM

f
960 MHz 124

935.2 MHz 1 200 kHz

20 MHz
915 MHz 124

890.2 MHz 1

1 2 3 7 8

Each freq. carrier is divided into 8 time slots.

 CDMA
• Spread spectrum modulation
– originally developed for the
User A’s
Chip
military
– resists jamming and many kinds
of interference
• All users share same (large)
block of spectrum
Received
signal • Almost all accepted 3G radio
standards are based on
CDMA
– CDMA2000, W-CDMA and TD-
SCDMA
Use B’s
Chip
 Frequency Hopping CDMA

Frequency

At each successive time

slot, the frequency
band assignments are
reordered.
Each user employs a
code that dictates the
frequency hopping
pattern.

Time Benefits include improved privacy,

decreased narrowband
interference
 Direct Sequence CDMA
Frequency

All users occupy the whole

bandwidth all the time.

Signals of different users

overlap with one other.

How can it be done?

Time
 Network Architecture
– Has to deal with very wide range of issues
– Cable, connector, signal form, voltage, current . . .
– Procedural steps in sending signals.
– Reliably exchanging data between adjacent switches.
– Dealing with interference, errors, loss of data.
– Specifying the destination host.
– Finding the path to the destination.
– Security issues.
– Issues specific to kind of use- Application
– . . .
– Designed in layered modules- each module/
layer taking care of a set of issues
– Each layer has a set of rules & mechanisms (protocol)
for the exchange of information.
– The set of layers, also called the protocol stack,
define the architecture of the network.
 ISO/OSI Reference Model

• To address the growing tangle of incompatible

proprietary network protocols, in 1984 the ISO formed a
committee to devise a unified protocol standard.
• The result of this effort is the ISO Open Systems
Interconnection Reference Model (ISO/OSI RM).
• The ISO’s work is called a reference model because
virtually no commercial system uses all of the features
precisely as specified in the model.
• The ISO/OSI model does, however, lend itself to
understanding the concept of a unified communications
architecture.
 ISO/OSI Reference Model
• The OSI RM contains seven protocol
layers, starting with physical media
interconnections at Layer 1, through
applications at Layer 7.
• OSI model defines only the functions of
each of the seven layers and the
interfaces between them.
• Implementation details are not part of the
model.
• Interface: It defines which primitive
operations and services the lower layer
offers to the upper layer.
• Peer: The similar layer on a different
machine.
• Protocol: It is a set of rules and
conventions used by the layer to
communicate with similar peer layer in
another (remote) system.
• The peer processes communicate with each
other using a protocol.
• A set of layers and protocols is called a
network architecture.
 Physical layer
• The Physical layer receives a stream of
bits from the Data Link layer above it,
encodes them and places them on the
communications medium.
• The Physical layer conveys transmission
frames, called Physical Protocol Data
Units, or Physical PDUs. Each physical
PDU carries an address and has
delimiter signal patterns that surround
the payload, or contents, of the PDU.
• It concerns with transmitting raw bits
over a communication channel.
• It deals with:
– Voltage Levels for 0 and 1.
– Connectors: Number of bins and purpose of
each bin.
– Transmission Media.
– Attenuation and Distortion.
 Data Link layer
• The Data Link layer negotiates frame
sizes and the speed at which they are
sent with the Data Link layer at the
other end.
– The timing of frame transmission is
called flow control.
• Data Link layers at both ends
acknowledge packets as they are
exchanged. The sender retransmits
the packet if no acknowledgement is
received within a given time interval.
 Network layer
• At the originating computers, the
Network layer adds addressing
information to the Transport layer PDUs.

• The Network layer establishes the route

and ensures that the PDU size is
compatible with all of the equipment
between the source and the destination.
• Its most important job is in moving PDUs
across intermediate nodes.
• It deals with:
– Routing: It determines how packets are
routed from source to destination.
– Congestion Control: Many packets in the
subnet trying to use the same route.
– Internetworking: It allows heterogeneous
networks to be interconnected.
– Accounting Function.
 Transport layer
• the OSI Transport layer provides end-to-
end acknowledgement and error correction
through its handshaking with the Transport
layer at the other end of the conversation.
• Transport layer assures the Session layer
that there are no network-induced errors in
the PDU.
• Disassembling and Reassembling: It
accepts data from a session layer, split it up
to smaller units if needed, pass these to the
network layer, and ensure that the pieces all
arrive correctly at the other end.
• End-to-end error control.
• End-to-end flow control.
• It defines Quality of Service (QOS).
• It is an end-to-end layer. Lower layers
communicate with intermediate nodes.
 Session layer
• It allows users on different machines to establish
sessions between them.
• Interaction Management: The Session layer
arbitrates the dialogue between two
communicating nodes, opening and closing that
dialogue as necessary. The data exchange
associated with a dialog may be:
– Duplex: Two-way simultaneous.
– Half-Duplex: Two-way alternate.
– Simplex: One-way.
• Synchronization: For lengthy transaction, the
user may choose to establish synchronization
points associated with the transfer. If a fault
develops during a transaction, the dialog may be
restarted at an agreed synchronization point
• It also supplies recovery checkpoints during file
transfers.
• Checkpoints are issued each time a block of data
is acknowledged as being received in good
condition.
 Presentation layer
• The Presentation layer provides
high-level data interpretation
services for the Application layer
above it, such as EBCDIC-to-
ASCII translation.
• Presentation layer services are
also called into play if we use
encryption or certain types of
data compression.
 Application layer
• The Application layer supplies
meaningful information and
services to users at one end of
the communication and
interfaces with system resources
(programs and data files) at the
other end of the communication.
• All that applications need to do is
to send messages to the
Presentation layer, and the lower
layers take care of the hard part.
Data transmission in OSI Reference
Model
Sending Receiving
Process Data Process

Application AH Data Application

Presentation PH Data Presentation

Session SH Data Session

Transport TH Data Transport

Network NH Data Network

Data Link DH Data DT Data Link

Physical Bits Physical