Hydraulic Circuits

Introduction

HELALY
 Contents

1. Introduction 8. Pressure-control Valves

2. Hydraulic Fluids 9. Flow-control Valves
3. Tanks & Filters 10. Basic Circuits
4. Hydraulic Pumps 11. Applications
5. Hydraulic Motors 12. Troubleshooting
6. Hydraulic Cylinders 13. Maintenance
7. Directional-control Valves
 HYDRAULICS
What is hydraulic technology?
In the hydraulic technology we transmit and control
forces and velocities by transmitting and controlling
pressure and flow.
A few examples are:
mechanical engineering
car technology
agriculture technology
earthmoving and mining technology
ship building technology
offshore-technology
aircraft and spacecraft technology
 A Brief History of Fluid Power
Even before the written history of mankind, the power of air
and water were put to use in an effort to make life and labor a
little easier. The first machines to utilize fluid power were
water mills. Recorded history indicates that water mills were
used as early as 100 BC, so they were probably around much
earlier than that. Hero of Alexandria was a scientist of the first
century AD who is credited with the development of a number
of early machines, including a reaction jet steam engine called
an aeolipile.  Archimedes developed the screw pump in the
third century BC. Greeks and Romans used waterpower in
aqueducts and piping systems in which lead pipes carried
water for both power and domestic use. The water clock-
invented by Ktesbios around 250 AD- provided the most
accurate method of keeping time until the Swiss movements
were invented in the fourteenth century.
Hero’s aeolipile was a reaction
jet steam engine designed for
entertainment, not work
In the eighteenth century, a French scientist and mathematician, Pascal,
developed the theories of hydrostatic pressure and force known as Pascal's
Law. An Englishman, Joseph Bramah, used the principals of Pascal's Law
and the related concepts of multiplication of force to develop the first
hydraulic presses as the eighteenth century drew to a close.
 One of the most remarkable developments was the pressurized water main
system in the city of London. This system, which originated in 1848, was
intended initially to supply hydraulic power to operate the dock elevators
along the Thames River to ease the problems of moving cargo from the ships
to the docks and then into upper doors of the warehouses. Initial progress
was slow, but by 1883 there were 12 miles of pipeline laid out along the
Thames supplying pressurized water at 700 psi. By 1920 this system had
grown to 160 miles of piping providing hydraulic power for over 5000
freight elevators (with capacities to more than 40 tons), cranes and capstans,
1000 industrial presses, and 1500 passenger elevators.
In addition, many thousands of small service elevators were in use by
London merchants. The Great Stage at the Theatre Royal in London was
powered from this main for many years.
Both the hydraulic and pneumatic mains gave way to electricity
early in the twentieth century. Fluid power became more
sophisticated as the early twentieth century brought new
materials and concepts. Water was replaced by petroleum‑based
oils with their improved viscosity and lubricity and their
improved low‑temper­ature characteristics.
In 1926 the first packaged hydraulic power unit containing a
reservoir, pump, control valves, actuator, etc—was developed in
the United States. This led to major innovations in industrial fluid
power applications, because these self‑contained, relatively small
units could be easily repositioned and operated independently of
other plant systems.
Applications
 Fluid Power Applications

A modern road grader has several hydraulic components

1. Hydraulic wheel motors, 2. variable displacement pump,
3. electronic proportional control valve, 4. solenoid valve
bank, 5. control panel, electronics, 7. flow divider.
The use of a hydraulic-motor-driven propeller on this modern
hydrofoil (bottom) given a 25% increase in carrying capacity
and a 9% increase in speed over the traditional configuration
(top). Both boats use same engine.
This multi-axis, multi-rotation pick-and-place mechanism uses fluid power.
Power steering control system for off-high way
vehicles
Bendix Hydro-Boost Power Brake System.
Hydraulically driven turntable for
handling huge logs.
Fluid Power application in oceanography
Hydraulically powered and controlled Sky-
system.
Hydraulically driven elevator conveyor for use in
harvesting of corn.
Fork Lift
Hydraulic power brush drive.
Hydraulic-powered front-end loader.
 The Fluid Power Industry
 It can be divided into six broad categories:
• Fluid manufacturers
• Component manufacturers
• Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs)
• Distributors
• Users of fluid power‑driven machines
• Component repair facilities
The first three categories represent the -hard core- of the
industry. It is within this group that most of the trained fluid
power engineers and technologists are currently found.
According to recent information from the National Fluid Power
Association, this group consists of approximately 800
companies with 1200 plants employing some 340,000 people
in the United States. The industry accounts for over $8 billion
in sales annually.
 Fluid Power Symbols
An important part of the standardization effort has been
the development of a system of graphic symbols by
which individual components and entire circuits can be
represented. Symbols may be of three types pictorial,
cutaway, and graphic.
 Pictorial symbols are
drawings that represent the
actual physical appearance of
the components. They are very
useful for illustrating the
interconnections between
individual components, but
they are very difficult to
standardize, especially
Cutaway drawings are particularly helpful in showing the
construction of a specific component. Since cutaway drawings
are peculiar to a specific component design, standardization is
virtually impossible. In addition, they are very complex to draw
and do not readily illustrate the functioning of the component.
Graphic symbols depict the function and operation of components. They
do not represent any particular design or method of construction. For
example, it is impossible to determine from the graphic symbol
representing a hydraulic pump whether the unit in question is a gear,
vane, piston, or screw pump. Graphic symbols are commonly used and
have been standardized on an international basis by ISO Standard
1219. The relatively few rules concerning the use of graphic symbols
may be stated as follows:
 Graphic symbols indicate only the function of the components,
including connections, flow paths, actuators, etc., necessary to fully
describe the function.
 Graphic symbols do not indicate component construction, system
parameters (pressure, flow rate, etc), spatial relationships, or the
physical layout of a circuit or component.
 The physical orientation of a graphic symbol in a drawing does not
change its function nor indicate its actual orientation.
 Symbols are normally shown in their unactuated (normal) positions.
 Hydraulics and Pneumatics

 Fluid power is divided into two categories—hydraulics

and pneumatics. The distinguishing feature of these
categories is the power transmission medium. Hydraulic
fluid power uses liquid (incompressible), while pneumatic
fluid power uses a gas (most commonly air)
(compressible).
We consider liquids to be incompressible, but that's not
really the case. Hydraulic liquids are compressible to
about 0.4 percent per 1000 psi. For most applications,
this is insignificant. It becomes significant when dealing
with high-frequency cycling or load applications such as
are experienced in some electro-hydraulic servo valve
applications.
 Pascal's Law
 In the mid-seventeenth century, the noted French scientist
and mathematician, Blaise Pascal, demonstrated that in a
confined liquid at rest, the pressure at any point in the
system was the same as at any other point. This
discovery, which has become known as Pascal's Law, can
be stated as follows:
Pressure exerted on a confined liquid at rest is transmitted
equally in all directions, is the same at any point in the
liquid, and acts at right angles to the surfaces of the
container.
It is also important to note that any change in the exerted
pressure is seen almost instantly throughout the liquid.
 The shape of the vessel does not diminish the validity of
Pascal's Law. Pascal’s law applies regardless of the shape of
the container.

Pascal’s law apples as well to a network of vessels connected by

fluid conduits
 Hydraulics Doing Work
According to Pascal’s Law, "Pressure exerted on a confined
liquid is transmitted undiminished in all directions and acts with
equal force on all equal areas." Therefore, a force exerted on
any part of an enclosed hydraulic oil system transmits equal
pressure in all directions throughout the system.
 The pressure is calculated with the formula:
Pressure = Force divided by Area
P = 500 lbs./12.5 sq. in. = 40 psi
Solving for the large piston we find: Pressure x Area =
Force = 40 x (3x3) x 3.14 = 40 x 28.26 = 1130 lbs.
Pascal Law The pressure can
be calculated
with the
formula:  

P=F/A
where:

p = pressure
(psi, N/m2)
F = force
(pound, N)
A = area
(square inch,
sq. m)
Mechanical Advantage
 ORIFICE EFFECT
When discussing hydraulics, it is a common practice to use
the term "pump pressure." However, the pump does not
produce pressure. The pump produces flow. When flow is
restricted, pressure is produced.
In Fig. 13 and 14, the pump flow through the pipe is 1 gpm.
In Fig. 13, there is no restriction to the flow through the
pipe. Therefore, the pressure reading is zero for both
gauges.
 Orifice Offers Restriction
An orifice offers a restriction to the pump flow. When oil flows through
an orifice, pressure is produced on the upstream side of the orifice.
In fig. 14, there is an orifice in the pipe between the two gauges. The
gauge up stream of the orifice shows that a pressure of 207 kPa (30
psi) is needed to send a flow of 1 gpm through the orifice. There is no
restriction to flow after the orifice. The gauge down stream of the orifice
shows 0 pressure.
Fig. 14. Orifice Offers Restriction
 Oil Flow to Tank Blocked
When the end of either pipe is plugged, oil flow to the tank is
blocked. The positive displacement pump continues
pumping at 1 gpm and fills the pipe. When the pipe is filled,
the resistance to any additional flow into the pipe produces
pressure. The pressure reaction is the same as Pascal’s
Law which states that "pressure exerted on a confined liquid
is transmitted undiminished in all directions and acts with
equal force on all equal areas." The two gauge readings are
the same.
The pressure will increase until the pump flow is diverted
from the pipe to another circuit or to the tank. This is usually
done with a relief valve.
If total pump flow was not diverted from the pipe, pressure in
the pipe would continue to rise and cause an eruption of the
circuit.
 Restrictions In Series
There are two basic types of circuits, series and parallel. In Fig. a
pressure of 620 kPa (90 psi) is required to send 1 gpm through either
circuit. 
Orifices or relief valves in series in a hydraulic circuit offer a resistance
that is similar to resistors in series in an electrical circuit in that the oil
must flow through each resistance. The total resistance equals to the
sum of each individual resistance.
 Restrictions In Parallel
In a system with parallel circuits, pump oil follows the path of least
resistances. In fig. 17, the pump supplies oil to three parallel circuits.
Circuit three has the lowest priority and circuit one has the highest
priority.
When the pump oil flow fills the passage to the left of the
three valves, pump oil pressure increases to 207 kPa (30
psi). The pump oil pressure opens the valve to circuit one
and oil flows into the circuit.
When circuit one is filled, the pump oil pressure begins to
increase. The pump oil pressure increases to 414 kPa
(60psi) and opens the valve to circuit two. The pump oil
pressure can not continue to increase until circuit two is
filled.
The pump oil pressure must exceed 620 kPa (90 psi) to
open the valve to circuit three.
There must be a system relief valve in one of the circuits or
at the pump to limit the maximum pressure in the system.
 Some Notes on Flow and Pressure
An important point is that the maximum pressure in a hydraulic system
depends on the least resistance to flow. Hydraulic fluid, like electricity, water,
and many people, takes the path of least resistance. This can readily be
demonstrated by a simple example. Look at the system shown in Fig. 1. This is
a single-acting hand pump, meaning that fluid is pushed into the pump from
the tank by atmospheric pressure as the piston moves upward and is pushed
into the system as the piston moves downward.
Cylinder A has a piston area of 8 in2, cylinder B is 3 in2, and cylinder C is 2 in2.
Assume that the lines are all empty initially, and that all the pistons are at the
bottom of the cylinders. The piston in the hand pump has a ½ in2 area. As the
operator begins to stroke the handle, very little force is needed because he or
she is simply transferring fluid from the tank to the empty lines. As soon as all
the lines are filled, however, the job gets a little tougher, because to push any
more fluid into the system, enough force must be generated to move one of the
loaded pistons. The easiest piston to move will be the one offering the least
resistance to the fluid flow, that is, the one requiring the least pressure.
The pressures required to move the loads are found from: P = F / A
PA = 10000/8 = 1250 psi

PB = 5000 / 3 = 1667 psi

PC = 1000 / 2 = 500 psi

System pressure is determined by the least

resistance to flow.
Cylinder C, at 500 psi, represents the minimum resistance to
flow in the system. Therefore, as soon as the system
pressure reaches 500 psi, the 1000 lb load can be lifted.
Now, consider what happens when piston C reaches the end
of its stroke and contacts the end of the cylinder. At this
point, the load on that piston becomes whatever force is
required to stretch the cylinder material (in other words, the
tensile strength of the cylinder). The operator, however, is
still trying to force fluid into the system. Again, something
must move to make room for it. As before, the cylinder with
least resistance-now the 10,000 lb load on cylinder A-is the
one that will move. As we have seen, a 1250 psi pressure on
piston A will result in enough force to lift the load but will not
be sufficient to cause piston B to move. As long as piston A
will move, 1250 psi will be the maximum system pressure.
Finally, when piston A reaches the end of its stroke, the 5,000
lb load on piston B represents the least resistance to fluid
flow. The result is a system pressure of 1667 psi if the
load is to move.
To pull this all together, as you consider the role of hydraulic
pumps, keep in mind these three facts:
1. Pumps generate flow, not pressure.
2. Pressure is the result of resistance to fluid flow. (We are
ignoring static head pressure here because it is seldom a
factor in fluid power systems because of their size.)
3. The maximum pressure in a fluid power system is the
result of the minimum resistance to fluid flow at that time.
(Another way to say this is that the actuator that requires
the least pressure is the one that will move first.)
 Advantages and disadvantages of
hydraulic power systems
There are several important advantages of hydraulic power systems:
1. They provide high levels of readily regulated torque and force.
2. They offer infinitely variable linear or rotary speed over a wide
3. They are instantly reversible, eliminating the need to come to a
gradual stop
4. They can be stalled without damage and without the necessity to
restart the prime mover when the stall-producing load is removed.
5. High power output is possible from relatively small, lightweight
6. High accuracy and extreme stiffness facilitates the positioning and
holding of heavy loads.
7. They are readily automated without electronics.
8. They are fully adaptable to electrical or electronic controls, including
programmable logic controllers.
9. They cam provide cushioning to reduce the mechanical effects of
impact or shock loads.
10. The fluid itself provides lubrication.
Along with these advantages, one must also consider
certain disadvantages of hydraulic power systems:
1. The hazards associated with any high-pressure system
exist.
2. A fire hazard exists for hydraulic fluids; almost all of
them (including the so-called fire-resistant fluids) are
flammable to some extent.
3. Hydraulic fluid leakage is possible.
4. Disposal of used fluids and the cleanup of large spills
must be conducted carefully.
5. Accelerated component wear is caused by particulate
contamination of the fluid, especially on high-pressure
systems, unless adequate filtration is provided.
 Fluid Power Systems
 A fluid power system is simply a mechanism for converting
mechanical energy into kinetic and pressure energy in a fluid,
transmitting that energy through a conduit, and then reconverting it to
mechanical energy in order to do work. The system consists basically
of three segments-the power-input segment, the control segment, and
the power-output segment.
The power-input segment consists of a prime mover and a pump. The
prime mover is normally either an internal combustion engine (usually
on mobile equipment) or an electric motor (usually on stationary
equipment). The pump converts the rotational energy into kinetic
energy (due to flow) and pressure energy (due to the resistance to
flow) in the system fluid.
The control segment is the "inner part" of the hydraulic system and
consists primarily of a series of valves that control (or are operated
by) the system pressure, the flow rate in the system, and the direction
of flow to and from components, actuators, the reservoir, and so forth.
The pump may be included in this control group if it is a variable-
displacement unit. Likewise, a hydraulic motor or cylinder cam be
included if it incorporates a device (an orifice or variable-displacement
capability) that allows it to exert some type of influence over the fluid
energy.
The power-output segment is the whole reason for the existence of the
system, since, after all, it is designed to do work. The task of this segment
is to convert the kinetic and pressure energy of the fluid into mechanical
energy. The mechanical energy may be rotational, as in the case of a
hydraulic motor or rotary actuator, or linear if the device is a hydraulic
cylinder.

This block diagram of a basic fluid power system shows that it consists of
three segments: power input, control, and power output.
 Hydraulic Technology
The principles of hydraulic technology are not new. In the
18 th. century in London a hydraulic press was built and
the Eifel tower was adjusted by water hydraulic jacks.
About 200 years BC the Greek already used machines that
were driven by water hydraulics.
Pascal’s law

Hydraulic systems operate according to Pascal’s law. The

law of Blaise Pascal says: 'The pressure, in a static
hydraulic fluid in a closed system is everywhere the same'.
However, when the velocity of the flow is constant one may
apply Pascal’s Law as well.
Animation: When the man jumps on the small piston, he
induces a pressure in the system. This pressure also works
on the large piston: because of the large area of this piston,
the force induced by the pressure is capable to lift the car.
 Energy conversion
Diagram of a simple
hydraulic pump-motor
system
In fact every hydraulic
system can be reduced to a
simple pump-motor system
as shown in the diagram
The hydraulic pump is driven
by an electric motor or a
combustion engine. The
hydraulic pump (2) sucks oil
from the reservoir (1) and
1 Reservoir, 2 hydraulic pumps the oil through the
pump, 3 pressure gauge, 4 pipelines and hoses to the
hydraulic motor (4). The
hydraulic motor (suitable for hydraulic motor for example
left and right hand rotation) drives a winch.
So the hydraulic pump converts mechanical
energy into hydraulic energy (pressure and flow)
and the hydraulic motor converts the hydraulic
energy into mechanical energy again! From the
exhaust side of the hydraulic motor the oil flows
back to the reservoir. In the return line the
pressure is almost zero! The pressure needed to
drive the hydraulic motor can be read on the
pressure gauge (3), and is determined by the
resistance in the system.
The most important resistance is the load to be
driven by the hydraulic motor (4)! Lines and
hoses also have a certain influence on the level
of pressure.
The speed of the hydraulic motor is determined
by it's dimension (displacement) and by the flow
that is pumped into it.