CorePure2 Chapter 3 ::

Methods in Calculus
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Chapter Overview
In this chapter, we explore a variety of new techniques for integration, as well as how
integration can be applied.

1:: Improper Integrals 2:: Mean value of a function

 “Evaluate or show that it is  “Find the mean value of over the
not convergent.” interval .”

3:: Differentiating and integrating 4:: Integrating using partial fractions.

inverse trigonometric functions  “Show that ”
 “Show that if , then ”
Improper Integrals
 STARTER 1: Determine . Is there an issue?

   𝑦

What’s odd is the we ended up with a negative value. But the

whole graph is above the axis! The problem is related to
integrating over a discontinuity, i.e. the function is not defined
for the entire interval , notably where . We will see?when this
−1  𝑥
causes and issue and when it does not.    1
We say the definite integral does not exist.

 STARTER 2: Determine . Is there an issue?

(Note:
  the below is seriously dodgy maths as we’re not allowed to use  𝑦
in calculations – we’ll look at the proper way to write this in a sec)

Although the graph is extending to infinity, the area is finite because the
values converge towards 0. The result is therefore valid this? time. This is
an example of an improper integral and because the value converged,
we say the definite integral exists.
 𝑥
 1
Improper Integrals
 STARTER 3: Determine . Is there an issue?

 𝑦
 
This is similar to the second example. Although as (and not
defined when ), the area is convergent and therefore finite.
The result of 2 is therefore valid. ?

 𝑥
 1

!  The integral is improper if either:

• One or both of the limits is infinite
• is undefined at or another point in the interval .

We’ve
  seen use of improper integrals with the normal
𝑝(𝑧)
  distribution (Stats Year 2), which has the probability function:

The table determines the probability up to a particular value

of . So . As the area under the whole graph is 1, the improper
integral
 𝑧
Examples
 ! To find , determine

  mentioned, we can’t use in calculations directly. We can make use of the

As
function we saw in differentiation by first principles.

 Evaluate or show that it is not  Evaluate or show that it is not convergent.

convergent.
 
  But as , so does not converge.
So converges to 1.

?
Just For Your Interest
?
This can be used to prove that the ‘harmonic series’
 is divergent.
 𝑦 The areas of the below rectangles are and so on, i.e. their
total area is the harmonic series.
But the blue area , which is smaller, is divergent.
Therefore the harmonic series must also be divergent.

1  2  3  4   𝑥
 
When not defined for some value
 We need to avoid values with the range for which the expression is not defined.
But just as we avoided by considering the limit as , we can similarly find what the
area converges to as tends towards the undefined value.

 Evaluate or show that it is not  Evaluate or show that it is not convergent.

convergent.

 is not defined for 0 so consider the area as  

the lower limit . Try “Consider and
scale” method

Undefined
As so does not converge. So converges to 2.  
when

? ?
 
When integrating between and
desired range of limits

−∞
 
−2
  −1
   0  1  2  3  4  5  6  7 +∞
 

 
Suppose we want . How could evaluate this?
We could integrate for example between and 0, and between 0 and , using
limits as appropriate (but any finite value would work). That way we are only
limiting towards one value at a time. ?

[Textbook]
  (a) Find (b) Hence show that converges and find its
value.

a  Try , then b  ∞ 0 ∞
2 2 2
−𝑥 −𝑥 −𝑥
?
∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑑𝑥=∫ 𝑥𝑒 𝑑𝑥+∫ 𝑥𝑒 ? 𝑑𝑥
−∞ −∞ 0
Exercise 3A
Pearson Core Pure Year 2
Pages 56-58
The Mean Value of a Function
 
How would we find the mean of a   the question then is, can we extend this to
So
set of values values ? the continuous world, with a function , between
 𝑦 4 and ?
𝑦
 ´
 𝑦 2  𝑦 3 𝑦
 ´

 𝑦 1

 ´𝑦 = 𝑦 1+ 𝑦2 +…+
?
𝑦𝑛 conti
nuou
 𝑎  𝑏
s equiv
𝑛 alent
?
Integration can be
 thought of as the
conti 𝑏
nuo
∫ 𝑓 (? 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
us e q
  continuous version of
uival
ent? summation of the
𝑎
𝑦=
´ values.
𝑏−𝑎
? The width of the interval, ,
 
could (sort of) be thought
 ! The mean value of the function over the of as the number of points
in the interval on an
interval is given by infinitesimally small scale.

We write it as or or .
Examples
[Textbook]
  Find the mean value of over the [Textbook]
 
interval . (a) Show that the mean value of over the interval is
(b) Use your answer to part a to find the mean value
over the interval of .
(c) Use geometric considerations to write down the
  mean value of over the interval
So mean value is

? a Using
  substitution:
Let , then
So
When
When
?
By splitting into partial fractions, we eventually obtain .
Thus mean value is

This is a bit like a ‘coding’ question. If the values all

increase by 4, so does the mean.

b Similarly if we negate all the values, we would also

negate the mean.
?

c
?
Just for your interest…
Why does the gradient of the line segment
between the first and last point of a function
give you the average gradient of the function?
When helping some GCSE students ( 𝑎 , 𝑓 ( 𝑎 ) )
revise, I came across this question:

[Edexcel ( 𝑏 , 𝑓 ( 𝑏 ) )
 The graphOriginal SAMs Paper 3H Q14bi]
gives information about the variation
in the temperature, in , of an amount of water
that is allowed to cool from .
If
  (where is the time and the
a) Work out the average rate of decrease of temperature), then the average rate of
the temperature of the water change is . Suppose our first and last
between  and . points were and
Using our mean function formula:
To find the ‘average gradient’, the solution was
 to simply find the gradient of the straight line
segment between the first point (when ) and But if we similarly find the gradient
last point (when ), as the average gradient is between the first and last points.
the overall change in temperature over the
overall time elapsed. I naturally wondered if I
could prove it more formally…

ME-WOW!
Exercise 3B
Pearson Core Pure Year 2
Pages 61-62
Differentiating inverse trigonometric functions
 Show that if , then

 
We know that
Remember
  that we’re trying to turn into an expression
in terms of ; we have to use in some way. You then
? might think “Oh, I know an identity that relates and !”

! 

 Given that find

 Using the chain rule:

? (Teacher Note: Those with the original print versions

of the new A Level Pure Year 2 textbooks will actually
find this material there: it has since been moved to
this module)
Test Your Understanding
 [Textbook] Given that
 Given that , show that , find

 
(Let’s use the ‘full’ Chain Rule
method this time)

sec 𝑦=2𝑥
 
Let

By the Chain Rule:

?
?
Exercise 3C
Pearson Core Pure Year 2
Pages 61-62
Integrating with inverse trigonometric functions
 Use an appropriate substitution to show that

Fro
  Hint: Think what value of
 𝑥= tan?𝜃 would make nicely simplify.

𝑑𝑥 2
 

2
=sec 𝜃→𝑑𝑥=sec 𝜃𝑑𝜃 ?

𝑑𝜃
 
Dealing with , , ….
From
  earlier:

 Show that where is a positive constant and .

This looks like a standard result from above. Letting (note )

?
Example

!  Standard results: (in formula booklet)

 [Textbook] Find

 
4 1
∫ 5+𝑥2 𝑑𝑥=4? ∫ 5+𝑥2 𝑑𝑥
 
Dealing with , ….
Standard
  results: (in formula booklet)

 
Find  
Find

 
1 1   √3
¿ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 4
1
9 25
? 2 ¿∫ 𝑑𝑥
+𝑥 ?
3
9 −
√ 3
4 √4 −𝑥
2

√ 4
Final example
Standard
  results: (in formula booklet)

Fro Tip: If you have multiple

 
Find terms being added/subtracted
in the numerator, split up the
fraction.

 
Deal with each in turn:

?
1
  =
𝑎
2
Exercise 3D
Pearson Core Pure Year 2
Pages 67-69
Solving using partial fractions
  have already seen in Pure Year 2 how we can use partial fractions to
We
integrate. We can use this to further expand our repertoire of integration
techniques for expressions of the form and

 Prove that

 
If
If

?
Partial Fractions involving Quadratic Factors
When you write as partial fractions, ensure you have the most general possible
non-top heavy fraction, i.e. the ‘order’ (i.e. maximum power) of the numerator
is one less than the denominator.
  1 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 +𝐶
≡ + 2
2
𝑥 ( 𝑥 +1) 𝑥 𝑥 +1

 [Textbook] Show that , where and are constants to be found.

?
Test Your Understanding
  the fraction is top-heavy, you’ll have a quotient. As per Pure Year 2, if the order of
If
numerator and denominator is the same, you’ll need an extra constant term. If the
power is 1 greater in the numerator, you’ll need a quotient of , and so on.

 [Textbook] (a) Express as partial fractions.

(b) Hence find .

a  

?
Exercise 3E
Pearson Core Pure Year 2
Pages 72-73