ANALYZING QUALITATIVE DATA: AN

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT

OVERVIEW

Sage Publications Limited © 2008 Michael D. Myers

All Rights Reserved
 Introduction

 There are many different ways

to analyse qualitative data
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 Given the tremendous variety

in approaches, this chapter
provides only an overview of
some of the ones that are most
commonly used in business and
management

Analyzing qualitative data: an overview 2

 Various approaches to interpretation and analysis
 Narrative analysis Coding
Series of events
 Semiotics Critical incidents
Decision-modelling
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 Content analysis Cognitive maps

 Analytic induction
Conversation analysis
 Discourse analysis
 Grounded theory
Within case analysis
 Hermeneutics Cross case analysis
Pattern matching
 Phenomenology
Explanation building
 Literary criticism Time series analysis

 Deconstruction

Analyzing qualitative data: an overview 3

 Coding

 Coding is analysis
 Coding is used for whole-text analysis
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 ‘Codes are tags or labels for assigning units of meaning to the

descriptive or inferential information compiled during a study.
Codes are attached to “chunks” of varying size – words, phrases,
sentences, or whole paragraphs, connected or unconnected to a
specific setting’ (Miles and Huberman, 1994)
 Codes are used to retrieve and organize the data
 Various types of codes: descriptive codes, interpretive codes,
pattern codes, etc.

Analyzing qualitative data: an overview 4

 Memos

 Memos are in effect your own commentary on what was

happening or what you were doing during your research project
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 Esterberg (2002) says there are two main types of memos:

procedural memos and analytic memos
 Procedural memos focus on the research process - they help you
to keep track of what you have done
 Analytic memos focus more on the subject matter - they focus on
the data and contain hunches and ideas about what the data mean

Analyzing qualitative data: an overview 5

 Analytic induction
 Analytic induction is a way to develop causal explanations of a
phenomenon from one or more cases
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 First, define a phenomenon that requires explanation and propose

an explanation
 Next, examine a case to see if the explanation fits. If it does, then
examine another case. An explanation is accepted until a new case
falsifies it
 When a case is found that doesn’t fit, change the explanation (so
that you can include the new case) or redefine the phenomenon
(so that you can exclude the nuisance case)
 Ideally the process continues until a universal explanation for all
known cases of a phenomenon is attained (Ryan & Bernard, 2000:
787)

Analyzing qualitative data: an overview 6

 Series of Events

 An event listing is a series of events

organized by chronological time
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periods
 The events can possibly be sorted
into categories
 Some events occur before others and
are connected. These can be in
narrative form or summarized in a
table form or flow chart

Analyzing qualitative data: an overview 7

 Critical incidents

 A shorter form of the series of events

 This is a listing only of those events that are deemed by the
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researcher to be extremely important and pertinent to the

research
 Events can also be states (e.g. alarm at failure rate)

Analyzing qualitative data: an overview 8

 Hermeneutics

 Hermeneutics suggests a way of understanding textual data

 Hermeneutics is primarily concerned with the meaning of a text
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or text-analogue (an example of a text-analogue is an

organization, which the researcher comes to understand through
text or pictures)
 The basic question in hermeneutics is: what is the meaning of this
text? (Radnitzky, 1970: 20)
 If hermeneutic analysis were to be used in business and
management, the object of the interpretive effort could become
one of attempting to make sense of a company as a text-analogue

Analyzing qualitative data: an overview 9

 Semiotics

 Semiotics is primarily concerned with the analysis of signs and

symbols and their meaning
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 A sign or symbol is something that can stand for something else

 In business and management, the greatest use of semiotics has
been in marketing, consumer research and information systems.
This is because of the pervasiveness of signs in marketing
communications (e.g. brand names, logos, and advertising) and
the importance of ‘information’ in information systems

Analyzing qualitative data: an overview 10

 Content Analysis
 Analysis of written documents

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Developing categories of words and phrases

 Looks at frequency of words, uses word counts
 Used for historical trends
– e.g. feminism in women’s magazines over the last 10 years
– e.g. number of centimetres devoted to sport in newspapers

 Can be used to analyse interview texts

– e.g. counting expressions of conflict

Analyzing qualitative data: an overview 11

 Conversation analysis

 Conversation analysis looks at at the use of language by people as

a type of action, or as a skilled accomplishment by competent
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actors
 A key concept within conversation analysis is the idea of the
speaking turn. The principle of turn-taking in speech is claimed to
be a universal feature of all conversations
 It does not presume the existence of fixed meanings in words and
idioms
 Meanings are shaped in the context of the exchange

Analyzing qualitative data: an overview 12

 Discourse analysis

 Discourse analysis looks at the way texts are constructed and is

concerned with the social contexts within which the text is
embedded
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 The word discourse refers to communication that goes back and

forth, like an argument or debate. All language can be treated as a
social interaction (there is always a speaker/writer and listener/
reader), but discourse analysis focuses mostly on language in use -
the use of naturally occurring language in speech and/or written
text
 Discourse analysis is concerned with actual instances of language
as used in communication
 Encourages multiple readings and interpretations of a text
 Many researchers focus on ‘language games’

Analyzing qualitative data: an overview 13

 Narrative analysis

 Narrative is defined by the Concise Oxford English Dictionary as a

‘a spoken or written account of connected events; a story’ (Soanes
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& Stevenson, 2004)

 Traditionally, a narrative requires a plot, as well as some
coherence. It has a linear structure, with a beginning, middle, and
end
 Narrative analysis is a qualitative approach to the interpretation
and analysis of qualitative data
 There are many different kinds of narrative analysis

Analyzing qualitative data: an overview 14

 Metaphorical analysis

 A metaphor is the application of a name or descriptive term or

phrase to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable
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(e.g. a window in Windows Vista). Metaphors do not appear in

isolation, but are part of larger meaningful structures 
 Metaphorical analysis ‘allows a systematic reflection of the
metaphors in which, and through which, we perceive, speak,
think, and act’ (Schmitt, 2005: 369)

Analyzing qualitative data: an overview 15

 Choosing a qualitative data analysis approach

 Do you find the approach interesting?

 Is the approach reasonably consistent with your own
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philosophical assumptions about knowledge and reality?

 Is the approach reasonably consistent with the research method
you employed?
 Have you gathered the right quantity and quality of data for the
particular qualitative data analysis method?
 Do you have a supervisor or some other faculty member who can
provide advice and guidance on the use of your preferred
approach?

Analyzing qualitative data: an overview 16

 Analyzing qualitative data
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How do I summarize and make sense of all these

words?

Sage Publications Limited © 2008 Michael D. Myers

All Rights Reserved
 The Analysis Continuum
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Descriptive
Raw Data Interpretation
Statements
 Qualitative or narrative data may come from…

 Open-ended questions and written comments on questionnaires

 Testimonials
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 Interviews
 Focus groups
 Logs, journals, diaries
 Observations,
 Documents, reports, news articles
 Stories
 Case studies
 The narrative responses may be brief or very long and
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detailed.

Your job is to make sense of these data and to make them

understandable for others.
 Typical errors

 Listing all narrative comments without doing any

analysis
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 Including information that makes it possible to identify

the respondent.
 Generalizing from comments to the whole group.
Qualitative information seeks to provide unique
insights, understanding and explanation – it is not to be
generalized.
 Using quotes to provide a positive spin. Consider your
purpose for including quotes.
 A common approach for analyzing qualitative data is
called content analysis. It involves 5 steps:

1. Get to know your data

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2. Focus the analysis

3. Categorize the information
– Identify themes or pattern
– Organize them into coherent categories

4. Identify patterns and connections within and

between categories
5. Interpretation – bring it all together
See the booklet, Analyzing Qualitative Data to supplement the information on
these slides; http://learningstore.uwex.edu/pdf/G3658-12.PDF
 Step 1. Get to know your data. Good qualitative data analysis depends upon
understanding your data. Spend time getting to “know” your data.

 Read and re-read the text

 Listen to tape recordings if you have them; transcribe data
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 Check the quality of the data. Is it complete and understandable.

It it likely to add meaning and value? Was it collected in an
unbiased way?
 Step 2. Focus the analysis

 Review the purpose of the evaluation and what you wanted to find
out.
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 Based on your ‘getting to know your data’, think about a few

questions that you want your analysis to answer and write them
down.
 You might focus your analysis by question, topic, time period,
event, individual or group.
 Step 3. Categorize information

Some people call this process ‘coding’ the data.

It involves reading the data and giving labels or codes to the themes
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and ideas that you find.

You may have themes or ideas you search for (pre-set categories)
and/or create categories (emergent categories) as you work with
the data.
 Qualitative Research:
Common Features of Analytic Methods
(Miles and Huberman, 1994)
1 Affixing codes to a set of field notes drawn from data collection
2 Noting reflections or other remarks in margin
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3 Sorting or shifting through the materials to identify similar

phrases, relationships between themes, distinct differences
between subgroups and common sequences
4 Isolating patterns and processes, commonalties and differences,
and taking them out to the filed in the next wave of data collection
5 Gradually elaborating a small set of generalisations that cover the
consistencies discerned in the data base
6 Confronting those generalisations with a formalised body of
knowledge in the from of constructs or theories
 Principles of Analysing
Qualitative Data
1 Proceed systematically and rigorously (minimise human
error)
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2 Record process, memos, journals, etc.

3 Focus on responding to research questions
4 Appropriate level of interpretation appropriate for situation
5 Time (process of inquiry and analysis are often
simultaneous)
6 Seek to explain or enlighten
7 Evolutionary/emerging
 1. Analysis Considerations
1 Words
2 Context (tone and inflection)
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3 Internal consistency (opinion shifts during groups)

4 Frequency and intensity of comments (counting, content
analysis)
5 Specificity
6 Trends/themes
7 Iteration (data collection and analysis is an iterative
process moving back and forth)
 2. The Procedures
1 Coding/indexing
2 Categorisation
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3 Abstraction
4 Comparison
5 Dimensionalisation
6 Integration
7 Iteration
8 Refutation (subjecting inferences to scrutiny)
9 Interpretation (grasp of meaning - difficult to describe
procedurally)
 The Qualitative Analytical Process
(Adapted from descriptions of Strauss and Corbin, 1990, Spiggle 1994, Miles and
Huberman, 1994)
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Components Procedures Outcomes

Data Reductions Coding Description

Categorisation
Abstraction
Data Display Comparison
Dimensionalisation
Integration
Conclusions &
Interpretation Explanation/
Verification
Interpretation
 Example of categorizing
information using hand
coding

Each response is read and

given a code to represent a
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different concept
(category):
Trg = training
T = time
R = resources
P = program
Fdbk = feedback
M= mentor
U = uncertain

Then, the data can be

sorted and organized by
category to identify
patterns and bring
meaning to the responses.
 If you’ve entered your data into a word processing file, you might highlight quotes
and type category labels in the margins. It is a good idea to leave a wide margin
when you create the file so you have space to type in the margins.
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 Or, you might use Excel to organize and categorize your data
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Example data set

 Step 4. Identify patterns within and between categories

 Once you have identified the categories, you might:

– Sort and assemble all data by theme
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– Sort and assemble data into larger categories

– Count the number of times certain themes arise to show relative
importance (not suitable for statistical analysis)
– Show relationships among categories
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IN BUSINESS AND MANAGEMENT

Working with others (key stakeholders, other program

staff, participants) in the coding and interpretation process
is helpful. For example, several people might review the data
independently to identify categories. Then, you can compare
categories and resolve any discrepancies.
How else might you involve others in your qualitative data
analysis?
 Step 5. Interpretation

 Now, stand back and think about what you’ve learned. What do
these categories and patterns mean? What is really important
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– What did you learn?

 Use of Qualitative Data Analysis Software

 Weitzman and Miles (1995) say that Qualitative Data Analysis

(QDA) software can help the qualitative researcher in:
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 Making notes in the field, writing up or transcribing field notes

 Editing: correcting, extending, or revising field notes
 Memoing: writing reflective commentaries on some aspect of the
data
 Coding: attaching keywords or tags to segments of text to permit
later retrieval
 Storage: keeping text in an organized database
 Search and retrieval: locating relevant segments of texts

Analyzing qualitative data: an overview 37

 Use of QDA Software (2)

 Data ‘linking’: forming categories, clusters, or networks of

information
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 Content analysis: counting frequencies, sequence, or locations of

words and phrases
 Data display: placing selected or reduced data in a condensed
organized format
 Conclusion-drawing and verification: helping interpretation of
data and testing findings
 Theory-building: developing systematic explanations of findings
and testing hypotheses
 Graphic mapping: creating diagrams that depict findings or
theories
 Preparing interim and final reports (Weitzman and Miles, 1995)

Analyzing qualitative data: an overview 38

 Software packages

 All QDA software packages allow you to code, search and retrieve
 Some allow you to import Microsoft Office documents and/or
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multimedia documents
 Currently about 15 packages for QDA – see
www.qual.auckland.ac.nz for a list
 Two of the most popular QDA software packages are Nvivo
(previously known as NUD*IST - Nonnumerical Unstructured
Data, providing ways of managing ideas by Indexing, Searching
and Theorizing) and Atlas/ti

Analyzing qualitative data: an overview 39

 Should you use QDA software?

 If you are using grounded theory or similar – YES

 The QDA software might be too mechanistic for some qualitative
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data analysis approaches

 QDA software is only a tool
 It can be a temptation to become too detailed and not see the big
picture
 As long as you are able to use the software appropriately, most
qualitative researchers should consider using QDA software

Analyzing qualitative data: an overview 40