CHEMISTRY

THEORY PROJECT

SUBMITTED BY:-
GAURAV DOGRA(071546)
BHAWESH TIWARI(071544)
MOHD FAISAL KHAN(071512)
VAIBHAV GULATI(071279)
SUDHANSHU GHAI(071275)
 Chemical Sensors

Sensors (detectors/transducers) covers a wide category of devices

used to monitor, measure, test, analyse data as generated due to
changes in a measured norm (usually concentration for chemical
sensors).
 Gas Sensors
Sensing Principles
•Electrochemical (solid electrolyte and
amperometric)
•Catalytic combustion (hot-wire)
•Semiconductor (conduction)
Applications:
•Controlled combustion (automobile, industrial furnaces)
•Toxic and inflammable gas detection (leakages)
•Electronic noses for air-quality monitoring, food quality
and medical diagnosis
 Flame Ionization Detector
A flame ionization detector (FID) is a type of gas
detector used in gas chromatography.
The detection of organic compounds is most effectively
done with flame ionization. Biochemical compounds such
as proteins, nucleotides, and pharmaceuticals can be
studied with flame ionization. Typically the biochemical
compounds have a greater amount of carbon present than
other elements. This means that a particular compound
may be more easily detected using flame ionization over
the other methods because of higher carbon concentration
and also flame ionization's sensitivity.
 FID-operation
FIDs are best for detecting hydrocarbons and other easily
flammable components. They are very sensitive to these
components, and response tends to be linear across a wide range
of concentrations.
However, an FID destroys most - if not all - of the components it
is detecting .

Analysis involves the detection of ions. The source of these

ions is a small hydrogen-air flame.. The resulting flame burns
at such a temperature as to pyrolyze most organic compounds,
producing positively charged ions and electrons.
 FID cont…

In order to detect these ions, two electrodes are used to

provide a potential difference. The current is measured
with a high-impedance picoammeter .
The current measured corresponds roughly to the proportion of
reduced carbon atoms in the flame. Specifically how the ions are
produced is not necessarily understood, but the response of the
detector is determined by the number of carbon atoms (ions) hitting
the detector per unit time. This makes the detector sensitive to the
mass rather than the concentration, which is useful because the
response of the detector is not greatly affected by changes in the
carrier gas flow rate.
 Solid electrolyte gas sensors
(combustion efficiency sensor)

Today's automobiles monitor combustion efficiency using a

galvanic oxygen sensor in the exhaust manifold. This sensor
measures the oxygen pressure of the exhaust gas. The potential
between two electrodes depends solely on the ratio of the partial
pressures of oxygen at each electrode, separated by an oxygen ion
conductor; zirconia .
The chemical reactions at each electrode are the same but in reverse
of one another; at one electrode the reduced form of the chemical
particle is being oxidised (releasing electrons) and at the other
electrode the oxidised form is being reduced (accepting electrons).
The voltage output of the sensor is sent in a feedback loop to control
the air/fuel mixture for optimised combustion.
ZrO2 oxygen sensor

Bosch (Germany) and NTK (Japan)

are largest manufacturers of so-
called lambda sensors.
 Three Way Catalytic converter
(emission sensor)
Cars are equipped with a three-way catalytic converter, so-called
as it helps decrease carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon and NOx
emissions using both reduction and oxidation catalysts (such as
platinum, rhodium and/or palladium).
   In order to reduce emissions, modern car engines carefully
control the amount of fuel they burn. They try to keep the air-to-
fuel ratio very close to the stoichiometric point, which is the
calculated ideal ratio of air to fuel, using a lambda sensor
feedback. Theoretically, at this ratio, all of the fuel will be burned
using all of the oxygen in the air. For petrol engines it is about
14.7:1. As engine and driving conditions change, this ratio
changes as well. Sometimes it will run richer or leaner than the
ideal 14.7:1.
Automotive combustion control
ZrO2 sensor operating principle

Electrochemical cell line notation

PO2 (ref), Pt|Y2O3-ZrO2 |Pt, PO2 (test)

Half-cell reactions
4e- + O2(test)  2O22-
2O22-  4e- + O2(ref)

NERNST Equation

 RT 
  PO2 ( ref ) 
E  ln 
 4 F   PO2 ( test ) 

 Mechanism

In order for the

zirconium oxide Doped Zirconia Electrolyte
sensor to function, the
oxides must be
mobile. To make the
oxides more mobile
and the sensor more
stable, the zirconium
oxide is doped with
yttrium oxide and
heated above 450ºC.
 Why dope?

The yttria dopant

introduces a defect into
the zirconia crystal that
leaves voids. In the solid
zirconia, some Zr4+ ions
are replaced by Y3+ ions
so that oxygen vacancies
are created which allow
the oxide anion, O2-, to
move in the solid, giving
a solid electrolyte.
Signal Output
 Other solid electrolyte sensors

Same principle applies to producing cells sensitive to

hydrogen gas and/or humidity (using perovskite oxides
based on SrCeO3 as proton conductors).

Research is underway to identify other oxides for

detection of hydrocarbons, CO2, CO, NOX and SOX
 Amperometric Sensors
Amperometric Oxygen Sensors
Similar to the solid electrolyte sensors.
An oxygen cell can simply be considered as
an enclosure which holds a flat PTFE tape
coated with an active catalyst (Pt), the
cathode, and a metal anode.
This enclosure is airtight apart from a small capillary at the top of
the cell which allows oxygen access to the working electrode. The
two electrodes are connected, via current collectors, to the pins
which protrude externally and allow the sensor to be electronically
connected to an instrument.
 Amperometric cell principles

The rate at which oxygen can enter

the cell is controlled by the size of
the capillary hole at the top of the
sensor.

The diffusion-limited current

response is directly proportional to
O2 pressure.
 Universal Exhaust Gas Oxygen
(UEGO) Sensor
This is the combination of an amperometric sensor and a
potentiometric sensor for use with “lean-burn” engines.
The potentiometric, lambda, sensor determines whether the burn
is lean or rich, while the amperometric sensor determines the
precise oxygen pressure.
 Toxic Gas Sensors
The reactions that take place at the electrodes in a carbon
monoxide sensor are:
Sensing: CO + H2O  CO2 + 2H+ + 2e–
Counter: ½O2 + 2H+ + 2e-  H2O
Overall reaction is: CO + ½O2  CO2
Similar reactions take place for all other toxic gases that are
capable of being electrochemically oxidised or reduced
(H2S,Cl2).
 Interferences

An auxiliary electrode can assist in overcoming cross interference

from other gases. Typically carbon monoxide sensors show a
significant response to hydrogen which can make the accurate
measurement of CO difficult when hydrogen is present.
However, using a sensor with an auxiliary electrode all of the CO
and some of the H2 reacts on the sensing electrode leaving only H2
to react with the auxiliary electrode. Once the ratio of the
responses on each electrode in known, a H2 –compensated signal
can be obtained by subtracting the auxiliary signal from the
sensing electrode signal with an analogue circuit or using a
microprocessor with appropriate software.
 Applications
Oxygen:
Typical applications include the measurement of oxygen deficiency
in confined spaces such as tunnels, mines or chemical plant or for
the analysis of combustion gases in flues and chimney stacks.
Amperometric oxygen sensors are also used in patient monitoring.
CO:
Sensors are available for a wide range of applications, including
residential safety, fire detection (smouldering fires), and industrial
safety devices.
Toxic gases:
Personal and industrial safety. Flue gas emission monitoring.
 Catalytic combustion sensors

A pellistor element is simply a platinum wire coil, coated with a

catalytic slurry of an inert base material (e.g. alumina) and a metal
catalyst which accelerates the oxidation reaction. This type of
element is known as the "sensitive" element. There are a number
of catalyst materials available and the precise type and mix is
carefully chosen to optimise sensor performance.
 Pellistor systems

The standard sensor consists of a matched pair of elements,

typically referred to as a detector and compensator (reference
element). The detector comprises a platinum wire coil embedded
within a bead of catalytic material. The compensator is similar
except that the bead does not contain catalytic material and as a
consequence is inert.
Both elements are normally operated in
a Wheatstone bridge circuit, that will
produce an output only if the resistance
of the detector differs from that of the
compensator.
 Pellistor Principles
The bridge is supplied with a constant dc voltage that heats
the elements to 500-550°C. A chemical reaction (oxidation)
occurs when a combustible gas reaches the sensing element.
This increases the temperature of the element. This T rise is
transmitted to the platinum heater coil which causes an
increase in the resistance of the wire. The inert element is
unaffected and this results in an electrical imbalance in the
bridge circuit and a detectable output signal is obtained. The
output voltage level depends on the type of the detected gas,
but shows an excellent linearity with the gas concentration
level.
 Pellistor Principles
Theoretically dV=(dR×V)/4R
 where dR=k×a×m×Q/C

dV Output voltage
R Resistance value of sensor in clean air
V Bridge supply voltage
dR Resistance value variation of the heater
k Constant
m Gas concentration
a Thermal coefficient of heater material
C Thermal capacity of sensor
Q Molecular heat of combustion of gas
 Pellistor Applications

Catalytic gas sensors (pellistors) are an industry standard for the

detection of flammable gas.
Catalytic sensors will oxidise most combustible vapours and as
such offer a true "explosimeter". Their sensitivity to different
substances varies, depending on the combustibility of the
substance.
The sensitivity of a catalytic sensor is defined as its relative
sensitivity to methane. It is thus important to identify which
substances are most likely to be present and to set the sensitivity of
the finished detector in accordance with the substance that has the
lowest relative sensitivity.
 Semiconductor gas sensors
Most widely studied area of solid-state gas sensors is that based
on semiconducting oxides.
The discovery in 1953 that adsorption of a gas onto the surface
of a metal oxide semiconductor produced a large change in its
electrical resistance signalled the advent of mixed metal oxide
semiconductor sensor (MMOS) technology. The effect is
commercially exploited for only a few oxides due to the
requirement for a unique combination of resistivity, magnitude of
resistance change in gas (sensitivity) and humidity effects.
Amongst the oxides which are used as MMOS sensors are
ZnO2, TiO2, Cr2TiO3, WO3 and SnO2.
 MMOS
The resistance change is caused by a loss or a gain of surface
electrons as a result of adsorbed oxygen reacting with the target
gas. If the oxide is an n-type, there is either a donation (reducing
gas) or subtraction (oxidising gas) of electrons from the
conduction band. The result is that n-type oxides increase their
resistance when oxidising gases such as NO2, O3 are present while
reducing gases such as CO, CH4, C2H5OH lead to a reduction in
resistance. The converse is true for p-type oxides, such as
Cr2TiO3.
MMOS sensors can be made quantitative, as the magnitude of
change in electrical resistance is a direct measure of the
concentration of the target gas present.
 Semi-conductors
Semiconductors are materials with electrical conductivities
that are intermediate between those of conductors and
insulators.
-In solids the electrons tend to occupy energy bands: valence
band and conduction band. The energy spacing is called the
band gap.
-For some metals, such as magnesium, the valence and
conduction bands overlap. Other metals, such as copper, have
empty states in the valence band.
-For insulators the valence band is completely filled and the
band gap is relatively large, preventing conduction.
 Semi-conductors cont..

 Semiconductors have an electronic structure similar to that

of insulators, but with a small band gap. Electrons can be
excited into the conduction band, making semiconductors
somewhat conductive at room temperature. Electrons in the
conduction band conduct electricity as does the empty state
in the valence band, corresponding to a missing electron
(hole) in one of the covalent bonds.
 Doping
n-type doping
Si atoms have four valence electrons.
If an atom with five valence electrons,
(e.g. phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), or
antimony (Sb)), is incorporated into
the crystal lattice, then that atom will
have one unbonded electron that can
easily be excited into the conduction
band.

p-type doping
In this case a trivalent atom, usually
boron, is substituted into the crystal
lattice and can accept an electron to
complete the fourth bond, resulting in
the formation of a hole.
 MMOS applications

A TiO2 MMOS has been in wide use as an oxygen sensor in

some automobiles (notably Ford and Nissan).
SnO2-based sensors are used for most other gas sensors.
Figaro Engineering USA is the leading supplier of these sensors
(for applications including residential and commercial/
industrial alarms for toxic and explosive gases, breath alcohol
checkers, automatic cooking controls for microwave ovens, air
quality/ventilation control systems for both homes and
automobiles. Etc).
 SnO2 Sensors

In the case of SnO2 sensors, which are n-type

semiconductors, the chemistry occuring on the surface
involves two main reactions.
Chemisorption of oxygen: O2 + 2e-  2O-ads
Removal by reducing gas: R + O-ads  ROdes + e-

In the first case the surface conductivity decreases

(resistivity increases), whilst the reverse occurs upon
introduction of a reducing gas.
 MMOS sensors

Since the change in electrical resistance in the sensing oxide to

the analyte gas is caused by a surface reaction, commercial gas
sensors use highly porous oxide layers, which are either printed
down or deposited onto alumina chips, to provide maximum
surface area. A heater track is also present usually on the
backside of the chip as both the interference from humidity is
minimised and the speed of response is increased upon heating.
 MMOS selectivity

MMOS sensors do not normally discriminate between different

target gases. As such, considerable care is taken to ensure the
microstructure of the oxide, its thickness and its running
temperature are optimised to improve selectivity. In addition,
selectivity is further enhanced through the use of catalytic
additives to the oxide, protective coatings and activated-carbon
filters.
 Sensor Arrays-The Electronic
Nose
Olfactory systems operate on the principle that a relatively small
number of non-selective receptors allow the discrimination of
thousands of different odours.
The electronic nose consists of an array of chemical sensors
(usually gas sensors) and a pattern-recognition algorithm
(chemometrics). The sensor array "sniffs" the vapours from a
sample and provides a set of measurements; the pattern-
recogniser compares the pattern of the measurements to stored
patterns for known materials. Gas sensors tend to have very
broad selectivity, which in the electronic nose, it is a definite
advantage. Thus, although every sensor in an array may respond
to a given chemical, these responses will usually be different.
 Digital smells!

An example of the electronic nose is given below, where an

array of 8 sensors output different patterns for each gas. If
the array is “trained” properly it can recognise the individual
gases in mixtures (chemometrics).
 Digital Tastes-the electronic
tongue
This is generally the solution analogue of the electronic nose. That
is, sensors that can monitor classes of chemicals in solution are
placed in an array to output a pattern that is indicative of a event of
interest.
The array is composed of individual amperometric biosensors
with different selectivities can provide bio electronic tongue for
ascertaining water quality. The array can be trained by correlating
its response patterns to wastewater toxicity, thereby yielding a
“tongue” that can “taste”, and hence warn of the presence of,
toxicity.
 What is an electronic tongue?
Biological taste system
Taste compounds

Electric Brain
Taste cell responses Taste
reception
Nerve cell

Artificial liquid system - electronic tongue

Sensor
Sensor responses Computer Pattern
array recognition
 Applications
•Best for matching complex samples with subjective endpoints such as
odour or flavour.
•For example, when has milk turned sour? Or, when is a batch of
coffee beans optimally roasted? When is a water sample toxic?
•The array can be trained to match a set of sensor responses to a
calibration set produced by the human taste panel or olfactory panel
routinely used in food science
•Identification of spilled chemicals.
•Air quality monitoring
•Quality of foods and drinks &Water and wastewater analysis.
•Detection and diagnosis of infections.
Application chart
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