WORK STUDY

INTRODUCTION
 With increasing complexities of the technological world, need
to simplify the work system has been increasing day by day.

 Work study is an area of knowledge that addresses the

problem of work simplification with the basic objectives of

PRODUCTIVITY ENHANCEMENT,
HUMAN COMFORT & SAFETY
EVOLUTION OF WORK STUDY

• FREDERICK W.TAYLOR: founder of modern method and time study.

• Taylor began his time study work in 1881.
• He established that each job should have a standard time, determined by time
studies.
• In the timing process Taylor advocated dividing the work into small divisions of
 effort known as elements.
• Time was obtained for these element individually and their collective values
were
used to determine the allowed time for the task.
 WORK OF GILBERTHs

• Frank and Lilian Gilbreth is considered as the founder of ‘modern

motion study technique’.
• Which is defined as the study of body motions used in performing an
operation for the purpose of improving the operation by :
 Eliminating unnecessary motions
 Simplifying necessary motions
 Then establishing the most favorable motion sequence for maximum efficiency
 Frederick W. Taylor (1856‐1915)
• First engineer in the history studying on the time study.
• Taylor states that "...in these experiments we were not
trying to find the maximum work that a man could do
on a short time but to learn what really constitutes a
full day's work for a first class man, the best day's
work that a man could properly do...”

Taylorism
• Which is the best way to do this job?
• What should constitute a day's work?
• Selection of the best worker, training, teaching him
• The division of the work equally
• Time study
– Divide each task into work elements
– Time each element separately
– Useful than timing the whole task
 Gilbreths
Motion‐study:
Study of the body motions, eliminating unnecessary motions, simplifying
necessary motions, and then establishing the most favorable motion sequence
for maximum efficiency.

Divided work into basic motion elements called “THERBLIGS”

• There is “one best method” to perform a given task
• Bricklaying: 120 to 350 per man per hour
• Micromotion study
–The technique of filming motions to study
–Cyclegraph
–Choronocyclegraph
 DEFINITION

“Work study is defined as that body of knowledge concerned with

the analysis of the work methods and the equipment used in
performing a job, the design of an optimum work method and
the standardization of proposed work methods.”
 PRINCIPLES OF WORK STUDY

1. Must come from the top level management.

2. People made aware of the objectives and the need of the exercising
such study.
3. Method study must precede work measurement .
OBJECTIVES
 To analyze the present method of doing a job, systematically in order to
develop a new and better method.
 To measure the work content of a job by measuring the time required to do
the job for a qualified worker and hence to establish standard time.
 To increase the productivity by ensuring the best possible use of human,
machine and material resources and to achieve best quality
product/service at minimum possible cost.
 To improve operational efficiency.
 To reduce waste through standardization of work elements of a job.
 To improve labor efficiency.
COMPONENTS /
TECHNIQUES OF WORK STUDY
WORK
STUDY METHOD STUDY
• Motion Study : The systematic recording and critical
examination of existing and proposed ways of doing
work as a means of developing and applying easier and
more effective methods and reducing costs.

WORK MEASUREMENT
• Time Study : The application of techniques, designed to establish the
time for a qualified worker, to carry out a specified job at a defined level
of performance.
BENEFITS OF WORK STUDY

 Increased productivity and operational efficiency

 Reduced manufacturing costs

 Improved work place layout
 Better manpower planning and capacity planning
 Fair wages to employees
 Better working conditions to employees
 WORK
CONTENT

Basic work content

Excess work content

7
MANUFACTURING
TIME

9
 REASONS FOR EXCESS WORK CONTENT

A. Defects in design

B. Inefficient methods of manufacture

C. Short-comings of the mgt.

D. Work-man attributes
8
Method Study
 METHOD
STUDY
Work Methods analysis or methods study is
a scientific technique of observing,
recording, and critically examining the
present method of performing a task or job
operation with the aim of improving the
present method and developing a new and
cheaper method.
10
 METHOD
STUDY
Objectives
Critical examination of facts
Develop best possible solution
Eliminate unnecessary
operations
Add value & Avoid delays
Optimize 3M
11
ADVANTAGES OF METHODs STUDY

• Work simplification
• Improved working method ( cheaper method)
• Better product quality
• Improved work place layout
• Improved equipment design
• Better working conditions
• Better material handling and lesser material handling cost
 Cont.
ADVANTAGES OF METHODs STUDY
• Improved workflow
• Less fatigue to operator
• Optimum utilization of all resources
• Higher safety to work men
• Shorter production cycle time
• Higher job satisfaction of workmen
• Reduce material consumption and wastage
• Reduced manufacturing cost and higher productivity

 Factors Facilitating OF METHODs STUDY
• High operating cost
• High wastage & scrap
• Excessive movement of materials and workmen
• Excessive production bottlenecks
• Excessive rejections and rework
• Complaints about quality
• Complaints about poor working conditions
• Increasing number of accidents
• Excessive use of overtime
PROCESS ANALYSIS
METHOD STUDY
PROCEDURE
SELECT
RECORD

EXAMINE

DEVELOP

DEFINE
12

INSTALL
MAINTAI
Method Study Procedure

1. Select the work or job to be studied and define objectives to be

achieved by method study.
2. Record all relevant facts or information pertaining to the existing
method using the recording techniques such as
* Process Charts: Outline Process Chart
Operation Process Chart
Flow Process Chart
Man-Machine Chart
Cont.

Process Charts: Multiple Activity Chart

Simultaneous Motion Chart
Motion Chart
Film Analysis Chart
PROCESS CHARTS

 A device for recording a process in a compact manner, as a means

of better understanding it and improving it.
 The chart represents graphically the separate steps or events that
occur during the performance of a task or during a series of
actions.
 The common symbols (of which there are only five) were first
promulgated by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
and have become known as the ASME symbols.
The Gilbreth Process Chart

OPERATION
An operation occurs when an object is intentionally
changed in one or more of its characteristics. An operation
represents a major step in the process and usually occurs at
a machine or work station.
Examples: Drive Nail, Drill Hole, Type letter
Cont.

TRANSPORTATION
A transportation occurs when an object is moved from one
place to another, except when the movement is an integral
part of an operation or an inspection.
Examples: Move material by truck, Move material by hoist
or elevator, Move material by carrying
Cont.

INSPECTION
An inspection occurs when an object is examined
for identification or is compared with a standard
as to quantity or quality.
EXAMPLES: Examine material for quality or
quantity, Read steam gauge on boiler, Examine
printed form for information
Cont.

DELAY
A delay occurs when the immediate performance of the next
planned action does not take place.
EXAMPLES: Material in truck or on floor at bench waiting to
be processed, Employee waiting for elevator, Papers waiting
to be filed
Cont.

STORAGE
A storage occurs when an object is kept under control such
as that its withdrawal requires authorization.
EXAMPLES: Bulk storage of raw material, Finished
product in warehouse, Documents and records in storage
vault
Cont.

 COMBINED SYMBOLS
Example:

Two symbols may be combined when activities

are performed at the same workplace or when
they are performed concurrently as one activity.
Example: A product is being weighed when it is
repacked. (In an automatic process where a milk
tin is weighed.)
Operation Process Chart

 A graphic representation that gives an overall view of an entire

process, including the points at which materials are introduced,
the sequence of inspections, and all operations not involved in
material handling.
 Two symbols are used in constructing the operation process chart:
a small circle denoted an operation, and a small square denotes an
inspection.
Cont.

 Vertical lines indicate the general flow of the process as work is

accomplished, while horizontal lines feeding into the vertical flow
lines indicate material, either purchased or worked on during
process.
Flow Process Chart

 Records the steps in a process along a vertical line, with the action
type being shown by a symbol alongside a description of the action,
as in the illustration.
Man and Machine Chart/SimoChart

 A chart relation of how much time the machine spend while the man
or the operator spending his time on his job.
 It is used to study, analyze, and improve one workstation at a time.
Flow Diagram

 The best way to provide this information is to take an existing

drawing of the plant areas involved and then sketch in the flow
lines, indicating the movement of the material from one activity to
the next.
 A pictorial representation of the layout of floors and buildings,
showing the locations of all activities on the flow process chart.
String Diagram

 A simple tool for analyzing and designing work spaces such that
movement can be minimized.
 The basic diagram simply consists of a map of the work area, with
the actual movements drawn on top.
 Cont.
Method Study Procedure
3. Examine the above facts critically: - Critical Examination is done by
questioning technique. This step comes after the method is recorded by suitable
charts and diagrams.
 The individual activity is examined by putting a number of questions. The
following factors are questioned
• Purpose – To eliminate the activity, if possible.
- What is actually done?
- Why is it done?
- What else could be done?
- What should be done?
• Place – To combine or re-arrange the activities.
- Where is it being done?
- Why is it done there?
- Where else could it be done?
- Where should it be done?
• Sequence – To combine or re-arrange the activities.
- When is it done?
- Why is it dine then?
- When could it be done?
- When should it be done?
• Person – To combine or re-arrange the activities.
- Who is doing it?
- Why does that person do it?
- Who else could do it?
- Who should do it?
 Means – To simplify the activity.
- How is it done?
- Why is it done that way?
- How else could it be done?
- How should it be done?
By doing this questioning…
 Unwanted activities can be eliminated.
 Number of activities can be combined or re-arranged.
 Method can be simplified.
All these will reduce production time.
 Cont.
Methods Study Procedure
4. Develop the improved method by generating several alternatives and
selecting the best method.
The answer to the questions given below will result in the development of
a better method.
 PURPOSE – What should be done?
 PLACE – Where should it be done?
 SEQUENCE – When should it be done?
 PERSON – Who should do it?
 MEANS – How should it be done?
 The factors to be considered while evaluating
alternatives and selecting the best method are:
 Cost of implementation
 Expected savings in time and cost
 Feasibility
 Producibility
 Acceptance to design, production planning and control, quality control,
production and sales departments.
 Reaction of employees to new method
 Short term or long term implication of alternatives
Cont.
Methods Study Procedure
5. Define
Once a complete study of a job has been made and a new method is
developed, it is necessary to obtain the approval of the management
before installing it. The work study man should prepare a report giving
details of the existing and proposed methods. He should give his
reasons for the changes suggested.
The report should show:

 Brief description of the old method.

 Brief description of the new method.
 Reasons for change.
 Advantages and limitations of the new methods.
 Savings expected in material, labour and overheads.
 Tools and equipment required for the new method.
 The cost of installing the new method including.
* Cost of new tools and equipment.
* Cost of re-layout of the shop.
* Cost of training the workers in the new method.
* Cost of improving the working conditions.
Cont.
Methods Study Procedure
6. Install the improved method in three phases –planning, arranging
and implementation phases.
This step is the most difficult stage in method study. Here the
active support of both management and trade union is required. Here
the work study man requires skill in getting along with other people
and winning their trust.
Install stage consists of:

 Gaining acceptance of the change by supervisor.

 Getting approval of management.
 Gaining the acceptance of change by workers and trade unions.
 Giving training to operators in the new method.
 To be in close contact with the progress of the job until it is
satisfactorily executed.
 Cont.
Methods Study Procedure
7. Maintain the new method by ensuring that the installed method is
functioning well.
The work study man must see that the new method introduced is
followed. The workers after some time may slip back to the old methods.
This should not be allowed. The new method may have defects. There
may be difficulties also. This should be rectified in time by the work
study man.
Periodical review is made. The reactions and suggestions from the
workers and supervisors are noted. This may lead to further
improvement.
WORK METHODS DESIGN –
DEVELOPING A BETTER
METHOD
Search for Possible Solutions –Develop the
preferred method
 The following approaches should be considered in developing
possible solutions from which the preferred work method will be
selected:
A. Eliminate all unnecessary work.
B. Combine operations or elements.
C. Change the sequence of operations./ Re-layout
D. Simplify the necessary operations.
Eliminate All Unnecessary Work

 In many instances, the job or the process should not be a subject for
simplification or improvement, but rather it should be eliminated
entirely.
 Example:
 Packing Lettuce in Cartons. Formerly lettuce was packed and
shipped in large wood crates holding a total pf approximately 125
pounds. In packing, Ice was interspersed between the layers of
lettuce.
 A better method of packing has been developed, using a carton
which holds approximately 50 pounds. The lettuce is selected, cut,
and packed directly into the carton in the field. Shortly thereafter,
the packaged lettuce is quickly cooled to 36 to 38 degrees in a
vacuum cooling plant, and it is not necessary to place ice in the
carton. Most of the lettuce grown in California is now packed in
cartons instead of boxes. The result is a saving of approximately $3
per box, and some 60,000 carloads of lettuce are shipped out of
California each year. The use of ice in packing lettuce was
eliminated, and the substitution of a fiberboard carton for a wood
crate further reduced the packing cost.
Combine Operations or Elements

 Although it is a customary to break down a process into many

simple operations, in some instances the division of labor has been
carried too far. It is possible to subdivide a process into too many
operations causing excessive handling of materials, tools and
equipment.
 It is sometimes possible to make the work easier by simply
combining two or more operations, or by making some changes in
method permitting operations to be combined.
 Example:
 See Figure 25
This shows how two short conveyors installed at the end of a molding
machine in a furniture factory replaced the off-bearer and made it
possible for one person to do the work of two. The operator shown in
the picture feeds the stock into the machine and places the finished
molding strips in the truck as they come back to him on the conveyor.
The truck shown is divided into four sections, only three of which are
used to bring up raw stock; the fourth receives the finished strips as
they come from the machine. This plan reduced the number of trucks
needed and also saved the floor space.
Change the Sequence of Operations

 When a new product goes into production it is frequently made in

small quantities on an experimental basis. Production often
increases gradually, and in time output becomes large, but the
original sequence of operations may be kept the same as when
production was small. For this and for other reasons it is desirable to
question the order in which the various operations are performed.
Simplify the Necessary Operations

 Aftfer the process has been studied and all improvements that seem
worthwhile have been made, the next step is to analyze each
operation in the process and try to simplify or improve it. In other
words, the over-all picture is studied first and major changes are
made; then the smaller details of the work are studied.
 This is done through questioning technique.
Operation Analysis
 Operation Chart

 For those who are trained in the micromotion study technique – that is, those
who are able to visualize work in terms of elemental motions of the hands –
the operation chart, or THE LEFT-AND RIGHT-HAND CHART, is a very
simple and effective aid for analyzing an operation.
 No timing device is needed, and on most kinds of work the analyst is able to
construct such a chart from observations of the operator at work.
 The principal purpose of such chart is to assist in finding a better way of
performing the task, but this chart also has definite value in training
operators.
 Two symbols are commonly used in making operation charts. The
small circle indicates a transportation, such as moving the hand to
grasp an article, and the large circle denotes such actions as
grasping, positioning, using or releasing the article.
 Note: The first step in making an operation chart or a left-and-
right hand chart is to draw a sketch of the workplace, indicating
the contents of the bins and the location of the tools and
materials.
Operation Chart Showing the movements of the two hands in
signing a letter
Operation Chart of Bolt and Washer Assembly
– Old Method
LEFT HAND RIGHT HAND
Carries finished assembly to bin 1 Reaches for lock washer in bin 3
Releases assembly into bin 1 Grasps lock washer from bin 3
Reaches for bolt in bin 2
Carries lock washer to central
Grasps bolt from bin 2 position
Carries bolt to central position Positions lock washer
Assembles lock washer onto bolt

Reaches for plain steel washer in bin 4

Grasps steel washer from bin 4
Carries steel washer to bolt
Positions steel washer
Holds bolt Assembles steel washer

Reaches for rubber washer in bin 5

Grasps rubber washer from bin 5

Carries rubber washer to bolt
Positions rubber washer
Assembles rubber washer
Fundamental Hand Motions
Search (Sh)

 Eye turned as if searching

 That part of the cycle during which the eyes or the hands are
hunting or groping for the object. Search begins when the eyes or
hands begin to hunt for the object, and ends when the object has
been found.
 Note: The original list of the Gilbreth motions contained the therblig
“find”. Because find occurs at the end of the therblig “search”, and
because it is a mental reaction rather than a physical movement, it is
seldom used in micromotion analysis work.
Select (St)

 Reaching for object

 The choice of one object from among several. In many case it is
difficult if not impossible to determine where the boundaries lie
between search and select. For this reason it is often the practice to
combine them, referring to both as the one therblig “select”
 Example: Locating a particular pencil in a box containing pencils,
pens, and miscellaneous articles.
 PRODUCTIVITY
MEASUREMENT AND
IMPROVEMENT
PRODUCTIVITY

 Measure of process improvement

 Productivity (P) = Units Produced (O) / Input Used (I)
 Single Factor Productivity
 Multi-Factor Productivity
 Single Factor Productivity
 SFP = Units Produced / Labor or Machine or Capital or Energy
Example:
At Modern Lumber.Inc., Art Binley, president and producer of apple crates
sold to growers, has been able, with his current equipment to produce 240
crates per 100 logs. He currently purchases 100 logs per day and each log
requires 3 labor hours to process .he believes that he can hire a professional
buyer who can buy a better quality log at the same cost. If this is the case, he
can increase his production to 260 crates per 100 logs. His labor hours will
increase by 8 hours per day. What will be the impact on productivity
( measurement in crates per labor hour) if the buyer is hired?
Case One : Current Labor Productivity ( when no buyer )
=Output / Input
Here Output = 240 crates
Input = Material required + labor hours
One log requires 3 labor hour. Therefore 100 logs require 300
labor hour.
Current Labor Productivity = 240 crates / ( 100 logs * 3 hours/
log ) = 240 / 300 = .8
Answer is : .8 crates per labor hour
 Case Two : 
 Labor Productivity  with buyer= Output / Input
 New Output = 260 crates
 Increase in labor hours = 8
 Labor Productivity = 260 crates / { ( 100 logs * 3 hours/ log ) + 8
hours }
 = 260 / 308
 = .844 crates per labor hour
 As a result, there is an increase in productivity from .8 to .844
crates per labor hour.
 Percentage increase in productivity = .844 / .8 = 1.055 =5.5 %
increase .
 Multi-Factor Productivity
 MFP = Units Produced / Any combination of Input Element
 Associated with cost
Example
Art Binley has decided to look at his productivity from a multifactor
(total factor productivity) perspective (refer to previous Solved Problem
1.1). To do so, he has determined his labor, capital, energy, and material
usage and decided to use dollars as the common denominator. His total
labor-hours are now 300 per day and will increase to 308 per day. His
capital and energy costs will remain constant at $350 and $150 per day,
respectively. Material costs for the 100 logs per day are $1,000 and will
remain the same. Because he pays an average of $10 per hour (with
fringes), Binley determines his productivity increase as follows:
 CASE I
 Productivity with Current System = Output / Input
 Output with Current System = 240 crates
 Input = labor cost + material cost + capital + energy
 Given: Labor hours are 300 per day
 Cost of labor = 300 * 10 dollars ( as he pays 10 dollars per hour )
 Material cost for 100 logs per day = $ 1000
 Capital = 350
 Energy =  150
 Therefore total input =  $4,500
 Hence , Multifactor productivity = 240 crates/4,500 = .0533
crates/dollar
 CASE II
 Productivity with Professional Buyer = Output / Input
 Output = 260 crates
 Given: Labor hours are 308 per day
 Cost of labor = 308 * 10 dollars ( as he pays 10 dollars per hour )
 Material cost, Capital and energy cost remain the same
 Therefore total input is  = 3080 + 1000+ 350 + 150 = 4580
 Hence , Multifactor productivity  with this new buyer = 260
crates/4,580 = .0568 crates/dollar
 Result :
 With the new system, we observe an increase in productivity from  .
0533 crates/dollar to  .0568 crates/dollar.
 The increase is ( .0568 – .0533  )/ .0533  = .066
 Therefore , the percentage increase in productivity is =  6.6%
Seatwork

 The ABC Garments Factory produces 1,000 shirts per day

with the following resources:
• Labor: 400 hours/day @ P50/hour
• Raw Materials: 2,000 kgs/day@P10 /kg
• Energy: P5,500/day
What is the multifactor productivity for these shirts?
OPERATION ANALYSIS AND
PRINCIPLES OF MOTION
ECONOMY
METHODS STUDY: OPERATION
ANALYSIS AND PRINCIPLES OF
MOTION ECONOMY
 PRINCIPLES OF MOTION ECONOMY
 Principles concerning the economy of movements which have
been developed from direct experimentation and form a good basis
for the development of improved methods at the workplace
 Classified as three main types:
1. Use of human body
2. Arrangement of the workplace
3. Design of tools and equipment
 Objective: To maximize efficiency and minimize worker fatigue.
Principles of Motion Economy as Related to
the Use of the Human Body
1. THE TWO HANDS SHOULD BEGIN AS WELL AS
COMPLETE THEIR MOTIONS AT THE SAME TIME.
2. THE TWO HANDS SHOULD NOT BE IDLE AT THE SAME
TIME EXCEPT DURING REST PERIODS.
3. MOTIONS OF THE ARMS SHOULD BE MADE IN
OPPOSITE AND SYMMETRICAL DIRECTIONS AND
SHOULD BE MADE SIMULTANEOUSLY.
Example: improved method of the bolt and washer assembly
4. HAND AND BODY MOTIONS SHOULD BE CONFINED TO
THE LOWEST CLASSIFICATION WITH WHICH IT IS
POSSIBLE TO PERFORM THE WORK SATISFACTORILY.
The five general classes of hand motions are listed here because they
emphasize that material and tools should be located as close as
possible to the point of use, and that motions of the hands should be as
short as the work permits. The lowest classification, which is shown
first, usually requires the least amount of time and effort.
General Classification of Hand Motions

 Finger Motions
 Motions involving fingers and wrist
 Motions involving fingers, wrist and forearm
 Motions involving fingers, wrist, forearm, and upper arm
 Motions involving fingers, wrist, forearm, upper arm, and
shoulder.
5. MOMENTUM SHOULD BE EMPLOYED TO ASSIST THE
WORKER WHEREVER POSSIBLE, AND IT SHOULD BE
REDUCED TO A MINIMUM IF IT MUST BE OVERCOME BY
MUSCULAR EFFORT.
6. SMOOTH CONTINUOUS CURVED MOTIONS OF THE
HANDS ARE PREFERABLE TO STRAIGHT-LINE MOTIONS
INVOLVING SUDDEN AND SHARP CHANGES IN
DIRECTION.
7. BALLISTIC MOVEMENTS ARE FASTER, EASIER, AND
MORE ACCURATE THAN RESTRICTED (FIXATION) OR
“CONTROLLED” MOVEMENTS.
8. WORK SHOULD BE ARRANGED TO PERMIT AN EASY
AND NATURAL RHYTHM WHEREVER POSSIBLE.
9. EYE FIXATIONS SHOULD BE AS FEW AND AS CLOSE
TOGETHER AS POSSIBLE.
Principles of Motion Economy as Related to
the Workplace
10. THERE SHOULD BE A DEFINITE AND FIXED PLACE
FOR ALL TOOLS AND MATERIALS.
11. TOOLS, MATERIALS, AND CONTROLS SHOULD BE
LOCATED CLOSE TO THE POINT OF USE.
12. GRAVITY FEED BINS AND CONTAINERS SHOULD BE
USED TO DELIVER MATERIAL CLOSE TO THE POINT OF
USE.
13. DROP DELIVERIES SHOULD BE USED WHEREVER
POSSIBLE.
14. MATERIALS AND TOOLS SHOULD BE LOCATED TO PERMIT
THE BEST SEQUENCE OF MOTIONS.
15. PROVISIONS SHOULD BE MADE FOR ADEQUATE
CONDITIONS FOR SEEING. GOOD ILLUMINATION IS THE FIRST
REQUIREMENT FOR SATISFACTORY VISUAL PERCEPTION.
16. THE HEIGHT OF THE WORKPLACE AND THE CHAIR SHOULD
PREFERABLY BE ARRANGED SO THAT ALTERNATE SITTING AND
STANDING AT WORK ARE EASILY POSSIBLE.
17. A CHAIR OF THE TYPE AND HEIGHT TO PERMIT GOOD
POSTURE SHOULD BE PROVIDED FOR EVERY WORKER.
Principles of Motion Economy as Related to
the Design of Tools and Equipment
18. THE HANDS SHOULD BE RELIEVED OF ALL WORK
THAT CAN BE DONE MORE ADVANTAGEOUS BY A JIG, A
FIXTURE, OR A FOOT-OPERATED DEVICE.
19. TWO OR MORE TOOLS SHOULD BE COMBINED
WHENEVER POSSIBLE.
20. TOOLS AND MATERIALS SHOULD BE PRE-POSITIONED
WHENEVER POSSIBLE.
21. WHERE EACH FINGER PERFORMS SOME SPECIFIC
MOVEMENT, SUCH AS IN TYPEWRITING, THE LOAD
SHOULD BE DISTRIBUTED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE
INHERENT CAPACITIES OF THE FINGERS.
22. LEVERS, HAND WHEELS, AND OTHER CONTROLS
SHOULD BE LOCATED IN SUCH POSITIONS THAT THE
OPERATOR CAN MANIPULATE THEM WITH THE LEAST
CHANGE IN BODY POSITION AND WITH THE GREATEST
SPEED AND EASE.
Work Measurement
DEFINITION :-

 “The application of techniques designed to establish the time

for a qualified worker to carry out a specified job at a defined
level of performance”
OBJECTIVES OF WORK MEASUREMENT
 1. Comparing alternative methods
 2. Assessing the correct initial manning (manpower requirement planning)
 3. Planning and control
 4. Realistic costing
 5. Delivery date of planning
 6. Cost reduction and cost control
 7. Identifying substandard workers
 8. Training new employees.
 WORK MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
 For repetitive work (short work cycle) or non-repetitive work;

Time study (stop watch technique)

Work sampling
Synthetic data
Analytical estimating
Predetermined Motion Time Study
(PMTS)
Note - Time study & Work sampling involve direct observation5
while remaining are data-based & analytical in nature
TECHNIQUES OF WORK MEASUREMENT :-

 1) Repetitive Work:- The type of work in which the main operation or

group of operations repeat continuously during the time spent at the job.
These apply to work cycle of extremely short duration.
 2) Non-repetitive Work:- It include some type of maintenance and
construction work, where cycle itself is hardly ever repeated identically.
 WORK MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
Techniques Applications Unit of
measurement
s
Time study Short cycle repetitive jobs. Centi-minute
Widely used for direct (0.01 min)
work
Work sampling Long cycle jobs Minutes
Synthetic data Short cycle repetitive jobs Centi-minute
Analytical Short cycle non-repetitive jobs Minutes
estimating
MTM Manual operation confined TMU (166TMU =
to one work centre 0.006min)
 Time study

 Time study is work measurement technique used to

determine the time required by a qualified and well-
trained person working at a normal pace to do a specified
task.
 Time Study Equipment
 STOPWATCH – Most widely used timing device for time study
Two types of stop watches:
1. Traditional decimal minute watch (0.01 min)
2. Electronic stopwatch (more practical)
 VIDEOTAPE CAMCORDERS – ideal for recording operators’
methods and elapsed time; by taking pictures of the operation and
then studying them one frame at a time, analysts can record exact
details of the method used and then assign normal time values
 TIME STUDY BOARD – a lightweight board, slightly larger
than the observation sheet, is used to hold the paper and the stop
watch. There are many different arrangements, but it seems best
to have the watch mounted rigidly somewhere near the upper
right-hand corner of the board and observation sheets held in
place by some form of clamp at the side or top of the board.
 TIME STUDY FORMS – printed forms with spaces provided
for recording information about the operation being studied. The
operation being studied is identified by such information as the
operator’s name and number, operation description and number,
department where the operation is performed, and prevailing
working conditions.
 TIME STUDY SOFTWARE – several software packages
are available for the time study analyst. Some of these run
on personal digital assistants (PDAs), including
QuickTimes by Applied Computer Services, Inc.
What is an Element?

 Element is a component of a job or task that are logical

divisions with easily identifiable starting and end points,
and are repeated on a regular basis.
What is a Cycle?

 Cycle is the completion of the activities (elements)

required to perform the job under study.
 Types of element
 A repetitive element – Is an element which occurs in every work cycle
of the job.
 An occasional element - does not occur in each work cycle of the job,
but which may occur at regular or irregular intervals. e.g. machine
setting.
 A constant element - the basic time remains constant whenever it is
performed. e.g. switch the machine on.
 A variable element - is an element for which the basic time varies in
relation to some characteristics of the product, equipment or process,
e.g. dimensions, weight, quality etc. e.g. push trolley of parts to next
shop.
 Types of element
 manual element - is an element performed by a worker.
 machine element - is automatically performed by a power-
driven machine (or process).
 governing element - occupies a longer time than any of the
other elements which are being performed concurrently. e.g.
boil kettle of water, while setting out teapot and cups.
 foreign element - is observed during a study which, after
analysis, is not found to be necessary part of the job. e.g.
degreasing a part that has still to be machined further.
 Timing the Elements

 Each element should be timed over several work cycles to obtain a

reliable average.
 STOP WATCH TIMING METHODS:
1. Snapback timing method – stopwatch is reset to zero at the start
of each work element.
2. Continuous timing method – stopwatch is allowed to run
continuously throughout the duration of the work cycle.
 Time Study Algorithm
 Define the task to be studied and inform the worker who will be
studied.
 Divide the task into precise elements.
 Determine the number of cycles to observe.
 Time and record element times and rating performance.
 Compute average observed time.
 Determine performance rating and normal time.
 Add the normal times for each element to develop the total normal
time for the task.
 Compute the standard time
 Calculating the Observed Time
 Average observed time = Sum of the times recorded
to perform for each element /
Number of Observations
Example:

ELEMEN CYCLE OBSERVED (IN

T MINUTES)
1 2 3 4 5
A 7 8 7 6 9
B 4 3 5 3 6
C 10 8 8 9 8
 Calculating the Normal Time
 NORMAL TIME – is the observed time adjusted for worker
performance. It is computed by multiplying the calculated
observed time by a certain performance rating, That is,
 NT = OT x PR
Where;
NT = normal time
OT = observed time
PR = performance rating (R/100%)
Performance Rating

 The performance rating (rating factor) is solely a judgment call made by the analyst.
 Perfromance Ratings are established for each worker.
- PR = 1.0 denotes worker performed at normal pace
- PR < 1.0 denotes worker performed at a slower pace
- PR > 1.0 denotes worker performed at a faster pace
Determining the Rating Factor (R)

 RATING – is that process during which the time study

analyst compares the performance (speed or tempo) of
the operator under observation with the observer’s
own concept of normal performance.
 Systems of Rating
 1. Skill and Effort Rating (BEDAUX SYSTEM)
 Under this system, the study time engineer observes and judges how
fast the operator performs the motions involved and also his skill.
Hence it is called as “Skill and Effort Rating”. This system was
introduced by Charles E. Bedaux in 1916.
 The author did not consider time as basis, but he introduced ‘B’ values
(the efficiency of each work element is estimated in ‘B’ values). ‘B’
values represent a standard minute which contains (i) work
component, and (ii) relaxation component. Only human effort is
measured by this system.
 Bedaux used 60 points equal to standard performance. In
other words, an operator working at a normal pace was
expected to produce 60 Bs per hour, and it was expected
that the average incentive pace would be around 70 to 85
points per hour.
 2. Westinghouse System of Rating
This system of rating developed at Westinghouse is based on
four factors.
These factors are:
• Skill
• Effort
• Conditions
• Consistency
 Each factor is then subdivided into super skill, excellent,
good, average, fair and poor. Each sub-factors are attached
with numeric values. The average time obtained from time
study is normalised by applying the sum of the ratings of
the four factors.
 For Example, if the selected time or average observed time
for an operation was 0.50 minute and if the ratings were as
follows:
Excellent skill, B2 +0.08
Good effort, C2 +0.02
Good condition, C +0.02
Good consistency, C +0.01
Total +0.13
Note:
The algebraic sum indicates that the worker is 13 percent
above the average. If the worker gets negative algebraic sum ,
he is considered to be below average.
 3. Synthetic Rating
 In this method, performance of the worker is rated from the
values already known by Pre-determined Motion Time
System (P.M.T.S.). In this procedure, time study is done in
the usual manner and then actual time obtained for certain
elements from this study is compared with that of known
standards. A ratio is established between these two values
and average ratio is calculated.
 Performance Rating Factor = PMTS value for the
element/Average actual time values for the same element
 R = P/A
Where
R = Performance Rating Factor
P = Predetermined time for the element, expressed in
minutes
A = Average actual time value (average observed
time/selected time) for the same element P expressed in
minutes
 Comparison of Average Actual and Times
Determined from Predetermined Time Data
Time Study Element Average Actual Time as Determined Calculated Average
Time (Observed from Predetermined Performance Rating Performance Rating
Time) in Minutes Time data in Factor Factor
Minutes R = P/A

1 0.12 0.13 108% 110

2 0.09 110
3 0.17 0.19 112% 110
4 0.26 110
5 0.32 110
6 0.07 110
 4. Objective Rating
 Under this system, rating is done in two stages. In first
stage, operator’s speed is rated without considering any
difficulty in making the job.
 In the second stage, an adjustment factor is to be applied to
compensate the operators difficulty. Job difficulties are
divided into six classes.
Six Classes of Job Difficulties
I. Amount of Body Used
II. Foot Pedals
III.Bimanualness
IV.Eye-hand Coordination
V. Handling requirements
VI.Weight
 The following example illustrates how the normal time for
an element is determined using this system of rating.
 For example if the selected time for an element is 0.30
minute, the pace rating is 1.10 percent and if the sum of
all secondary adjustments amount to 20 percent then the
normal time will be calculated as follows
 Normal time = Average time x Pace rating x Difficulty
adjustment
 = 0.30 x 1.10 x 1.20
 = 0.396 minute.
 5. Physiological Evaluation of Performance Level
 Under this method, the performance level of the worker is
estimated physiologically. Many studies have revealed that
there is relationship between physical work and amount of
oxygen consumed by the operator. There is change in heart
beating rate depending on the physical work and it is assumed
that it is a reliable index to measure muscular activity.
 Thus the oxygen consumed and the heart beat rate depend on
the severity of physical labour. Thus performance level of a
worker can be estimated using this correlation because heart
beat rate and oxygen consumption increase when the worker is
at working level. When work ends, recovery begins and the
heart rate and oxygen consumption return to normal resting
level
 6. Speed Rating
 In speed rating, the speed of the movements of a worker is the
only factor to be considered. The time study engineer observes
the speed of the movements of the worker against a standard
expected pace or speed and notes the relationship between
them as the rating factor. Rating factor can be applied to
different elements.
 Rating Factor = Workers speed/Speed expected from the
worker
 Standard Time

 Amount of time required to complete a unit of work

 The normal time does not take into account such factors as
personnel delays (getting a drink of water or going to the
restroom), unavoidable delays (machine adjustments and
repairs, talking to a supervisor, waiting for materials) or
rest breaks.
 ST = NT X ( 1 + Allowance )
Where
ST = Standard Time
NT = Normal Time
 PFD ALLOWANCES
PERSONAL TIME - rest room breaks, phone calls,
water fountain stops, cigarette breaks (5% typical)
FATIGUE – rest allowance to overcome fatigue due to
work – related stresses and conditions (5% or more)
DELAYS – machine breakdowns, foreman instructions
(5%typical)
 Example:
 From the data below, Compute for the standard time if the allowance factor = 15%

CYCLE OBSERVED (IN MINUTES)

JOB ELEMENT 1 2 3 4 5 Performance
Rating
Compose and type letter 8 10 9 21 11 120%
Type envelope address 2 3 2 1 3 105%
Stuff, stamp, seal and sort 2 1 5 2 1 110%
envelopes
Number of Cycles Determination
 Suppose we want to know the number of cycles we must observe
in order to obtain an average cycle time that is 95% certain to fall
within +/- 5% of the actual average cycle time for all workers
performing this job or task within a job.
- How accurate we want to be
- The desired confidence level
- How much variation exists within the job elements
  To determine sample size:


Where:
Z= number of standard deviations from the mean in a normal
distribution reflecting a level of statistical confidence

= sample standard deviation from sample time study

a = accuracy level desired

  
Alternative formula:

Where
e = maximum acceptable error
 Common z - values
Desired Confidence (%) z Value (standard
deviation required for
desired level of
confidence)
90.0 1.645
95.0 1.96
95.45 2.00
98 2.33
99.0 2.575
99.73 3.00
 Example:
1. How many observations will be required in your time
study to achieve the following?
Desired Confidence = 99%
The desired accuracy within 2% of the mean observed times
The sample observation mean = 45
The sample standard deviation = 1.8
2. Alvin Manufacturing has just observed a job in its laboratory in anticipation of releasing the job
in the factory for production. The firm wants rather good accuracy for costing and labor testing.
Specifically, it wants to provide a 99% confidence level and a cycle time that is within 3% of the
true value. The data collected so far are as follows:

OBSERVATION TIME (MIN)

1 1.7
2 1.6
3 1.4
4 1.8
5 1.5

How many observations should be taken?

WORK SAMPLING:-

Work sampling was originally developed by L.H.C. Tippett in Britain in 1934 for the British
Cotton Industry Research Board.
DEFINATION:-
A technique in which a statistically competent number of instantaneous observations are taken,
over a period time, of a group of machines,processes or workers.
Work Sampling has three main applications:-
1) Activity and delay Sampling:- To measure the activities and delays of workers and machines.
2) Performance Sampling:- To measure working time and non working time of a person on a
manual work and to establish a performance index or performance level for a person during his
working time.
3) Work Measurement:- Under certain circumstances, to measure manual task that is to
established a time standard for an operation.
Work Sampling Procedures

1. Identify the worker or machine to be sampled

2. Define the activities to be observed
3. Estimate the sample size based on level of accuracy and confidence level
4. Develop the random observation schedule. Make observations over a time period that is
representative of normal work conditions
5. Make you observations and record the data. Check to see whether the estimated sample
size remains valid
6. Estimate the proportion of the time spent on the given activity
Compensation

Compensation is the third part of work system design

 Time-based plans (pay based on the number of hours worked) vs.
output-based systems (pay based on the number of units completed)
 Group incentive plans: profit sharing & gain sharing
 Plans put part of a worker’s salary at risk
 Does the compensation system undermine teamwork?
 Does plan prevent free-riders not doing their fair share?
 Does the incentive plan encourage workers to support the long-term health
of the organization?
Worker Compensation Systems – con’t

 Group incentive plans reward employees when company

achieves certain performance objectives
 Profit sharing – a employee bonus pool based on sharing of
company’s profits
 Gain sharing – emphasizes cost reduction rather than profits
 Plans put part of a worker’s salary at risk
 Compensation system may undermine teamwork
Work System Design within OM: How it all
fits together
 Work system design includes job design, methods analysis, and work
measurement. Manufacturing or industrial engineers often do these activities. Job
design determines exactly how the product or service will be done and is linked
directly to product and process design. Based on the type of product (standard or
custom) and its proposed process (mass-producing or producing one at a time), a
company determines the skills set needed by its employees as well as the
necessary equipment.
 Method analysis provides a means for evaluating different processes and
materials, thus allowing a company to focus on continuous improvement. This
ties in directly with a company’s total quality management (TQM) focus.
WSD: How it all fits together con’t

 Work measurement techniques allow a company to develop standards to use as a basis for
evaluating the cost and effectiveness of different methods and materials for building a
product or providing a service. These time standards provide a time estimate to use as a
basis for establishing detailed work schedules and for determining long-term staffing
levels. These time estimates can be used as a basis for making delivery or completion-time
promises to customers. Standard times are used to develop lead-time estimates, which are
inputs for the MRP (material requirement planning) system as well as the MPS (master
production schedule) process.
 Work system design provides the means for setting standards against which to compare
new methods, new materials, and new designs, assures that employees know how to do
their job, and provides the information needed by the company to calculate its costs.
Work System Design Across the Organization

 Work system design affections functional areas throughout the

organization
 Accounting calculates the cost of products manufactured,
variances between planned and actual costs as well as
operational efficiency
 Marketing uses work system design as the bases for
determining led time
Work System Design Across the Organization
– con’t
 Information systems uses estimates of job duration and
resources in the software for scheduling and tracking
operations
 Human resources uses work sampling to establishes and
validate hiring criteria
What is job design

Job design – process by which managers decide individual job tasks

and authority

Job redesign – process by which managers reconsider what

employees are expected to do

The well-being of organizations and people relates to how well

management designs jobs
 Definition of job design

Def: Job Design is the process of deciding on the content of a job in terms of
its duties and responsibilities; on the methods to be used in carrying out the
job, in terms of techniques, systems and procedures and on the relationships
that should exist between the job holder and the superiors, subordinates and
colleagues.
 Goals of Job design

1. Major Concern
2. Purpose of Job Design
3. Affect on Employee
4. Impact
Design factor

 Layout of equipment and seating

 Instrument display design
 Compatibility
 Control design characteristics
Environmental factors

 Temperature and hummidity

 Vibration
 noise
Visual Environment

 Lighting
 Ventilation
 Behavioural dimensions of job design
 Job rotation
 Job enlargement
 Job enrichment
Job Rotation: Job Enlargement
:Job Enrichment:

 Job Rotation: Refers to the movement of an employee from one Job to another.

 Please note: Jobs themselves are not actually Changed, only employees are Rotated among
various jobs.

 Job Enlargement: When a job is enlarged the tasks being performed are either enlarged or
several short tasks are given to on worker, thus the scope of the Job is increased because
there are many tasks to be performed by the same worker.

 Job Enrichment::Job enrichment as is currently practiced all over the work is a direct
outgrowth of Herzberg’s Two factor theory of motivation.
Approaches to Job Design

 Engineering Approach:
 Human Approach:
 Job Characteristics Approach:
Engineering Approach:

 The work of every workman is fully planned out by the

management at least on day in advance and each man
receives in most cases complete written instructions,
describing in detail the task which he/she has to
accomplish-FW TAYLOR.
 Problem with this approach: Repetition-Mechanical
pacing-no end product-little socal interaction-no input
 Human Approach:
 The Human relations approach recognized the need to design jobs which are interesting and rewarding.
 Herzberg’s research popularized the notion of enhancing need satisfaction through what is called job
enrichment.
 Factors involved:
 Motivators like achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement and growth and
Hygienic factors.
 According to Herzberg. The Employee is dissatisfied with the job if required maintenance factors to the
required degree are not introduced into the job.
 Job Characteristics Approach

 Theory by Hackman and Oldham states that employees will work hard when they are rewarded for
the work they do and when the work gives them satisfaction.
 Hence integration of motivation, satisfaction and performance with job design.
 According to this approach Job can be described in terms of five core job dimensions:
1. Skill Variety
2. Task Identity
3. Task significance
4. Autonomy
5. Feedback
Job Design Process:

 Job Design Process has to start from what activity needs to be done
in order to achieve organizational goals.
 It requires use of techniques like work-study, process planning,
organizational methods and organizational analysis and also
technical aspects
THANK YOU!