CHAPTER THREE

BASICS OF COMPUTER HARDWARE

 Computer system
 A computer system is the combination of hardware and software
 A typical computer system utilizes a computer that uses
programmable devices to store, retrieve, and process data.
 Examples of computer system
 Personal Computer or pc
 Automatic teller machine (ATM)
 Even the simplest computer classifies as a computers system, because
at least two components (hardware and software )have too work
together
 But the real meaning of “computer system” comes with
interconnection of many computer systems can interconnect, that is
join to become a bigger system
 Automatic teller machines (ATM) are machines that allow bank
account holders to make financial transactions automatically
without going to banks by making use of a cord that contains details
of the account 2
 Computer Hardware
 Computer hardware is the physical part of the computer
system that can be seen and felt that carry out the
activities of capturing, processing, storing and
communicating data and information.
 The hard ware part of a computer system is composed of
a number of interacted physical parts. Eg keyboard,
mouse, cpu and etc.
 There are several criteria by which computer hardware
can be categorized.
 The hardware part of a computer System is composed of
a number of interacting physical parts based on the need
of the information flow.
 Information flows in the computer hardware.
3
 Based on information processing we can divide computer
hardware in to four:
1. Input Device
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
3. Output Device
4. Storage Device

4
Fig: This figure shows hardware components of a computer interact
each other to perform operations
 1. Input Devices
 Input means entering data or information to a computer.
 The process of entering data or information in to the computer
is for processing, storage and transmission
 Input devices are devices that are used to enter data or
information to the computer.
 They convert the data we give them in to the form that can be
manipulated in the computer (electronic format)
 Different types of input devices are used to enter data or
information in to the computer. The most common are:
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Image Scanner
 Disk Drives
 Touch Screen
 Light Pens 6
 1.1 keyboard
 Keyboard is the most common and widely used type of input
device consisting of a set of type writer like keys that enable
one to enter data in to a computer
 The keys on the keyboard are often classified as follows
 Alphanumeric keys –letters and numbers
 Punctuation keys-comma, period, semicolon, and etc.
 Special k keys- function keys, control keys, arrow keys, cops
lock, etc.
1.2 Mouse
 Mouse is a hand-held operated device that controls the
movement of the cursor or pointer on a display screen
 It is a small object that can be rolled along a rough flat
surface.
 Mouse can have as many as three buttons its function
depends on what program is running 7
 Left-button: for left click-example, selecting text
 Right-button: for right click- example, see property of file, folders
and other programs.
 Middle-button: for scrolling purpose- this button is sometimes
missing.
 Mouse has roller ball at the bottom
 The roller ball converts mouse movements in to electronic signals.
 Most mice are connected to the system unit by a cable or cord.
 The following mouse are the one which is used by connecting to the
system unit through USB port or PS2 port

8
 There are also mouse that are not connected to system
unit by a cable/ cord.
 They are called cord less mouse (wireless mouse)
 They communicate with system unit using infrared light,
similar technology used in remote control or radio
waves.
 You can identify an optical mouse by the telltale red glow
emanating from its underside.
 The following are examples of wireless mouse that works
like just a remote control.

9
 1.3 Optical Recognition Systems
 Optical recognition system uses light to read characters,
codes, and marks and convert them in to computer
understandable format.
 The following are some of the common types of optical
recognition systems:
A. OCR (Optical Character Recognizer)
B. OMR (Optical Mark Recognition)
C. Barcode Reader
D. Image Scanner
A. Optical Character Recognizers (OCR)
 The use of OCR is to enter documents found on paper in
to computer without the need to type it using keyboard.
 This makes the job easy.
10
 It is a scanner that read typewritten, computer printed, and in
some cases hand printed characters from ordinary documents.
 They scan the shape of character and compare it with predefined
font shapes found in memory.
 Based on the comparison, they can convert the characters in to
computer code.
B) Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
 OMR senses the presence or absence of a mark, such as pencil
marks.
 It doesn’t utilize letters of the alphabet, instead with the use of
electronic scanners, marks and symbols are converted in to
appropriate electronic signals.
 It is used to process questionnaires or exams using computer.
 The read mark is interpreted and matched against previously
entered answer key
 Example, the ESLCE is corrected using this device 11
 C. Barcode Reader
 Barcode reader is a peripheral that reads (scans) bar codes printed on
products.
 Barcode uses a pattern or symbols to represent data.
 It consists of vertical lines and spaces of different width.
 The barcode reader scans a bar-code and converts it in to a digital
code.
 There are different kinds of barcodes, the most commonly used is called
UPC (Universal Product Code).
 It is used to identify product manufacturer, product number, price, etc.
 It is usually used in supermarket, groceries, etc to identify products and
their price.
 The supermarket system may be just a local area network where a
powerful server and number of terminals attached to the server found.
 The checkout person at the terminals (the so-called POS: Point Of Sale
terminals) will scan the bar code of the good offered by customers.
12
 The barcode reader as it reads the bar code, it converts it to a
digital code and this digital code will be sent to the server.
 The server contains list of items(item names, type of the items,
manufacturers, their price and their code).
 The code sent by the terminals will be used to identify the item
and the item with the price will be returned back to the terminal.
 It will appear on the monitor, and probably on the customer’s
receipt then.
D) Image Scanner
 We sometimes want to use our previously taken images in to
computer.
 In such cases we need a device that converts the image in paper
in to computer format. This is called Image Scanner.
 It allows you to scan printed material and images and convert it
into a file format that may be used within the PC
 1.4 Speech Recognition System
 Speech recognition is the ability of computers to recognize
human speech.
 Speech recognition is one application of audio input devices.
 For this process, the following are needed: Microphone,
Sound card, the software and quite place.
 Once the sound is inputted, the computer processes the
speech and performs the action ordered by speech.
 This is the latest technology and is still under research.
 We have two kinds of speech recognition: Voice Command
and Voice Dictation.
i) Voice Command: Relatively, this is simpler than voice
dictation.
 Because the system will give you a chance to speak out
commands and the computer listens to you, understands
what you are saying and react accordingly.
14
ii) Voice Dictation: This one is pretty difficult.
 It consists of the computer is going to listen to you when
speaking words and enter the words.
 The difficulty is clear as our voice and pronunciation
varies and the system is very dependent on the speaker.
 Most voice dictation systems should be trained to
recognize the speaker’s voice and pronunciation.
 So you will be asked to read loudly several words by the
software so that the system is going to be well trained.
 And then you can use the software to enter your words
simply by dictation (without typing).
 1.5. Light pen
 Light pen is a light sensitive pen like device that is used in
conjunction with computer monitor.
 It is used by touching the screen with this device to create or modify
graphics.
 A light cell in the tip of the pen senses light from the screen to
determine the pen’s location on the screen.

1.6. Touch Screen

 Touch screen allow to use fingers instead of mouse or related input
device.
 It lets you enter data or command (eg. button click) by touching
areas of the screen.
 It enables you perform activities you perform using your finger.
 It is not used to enter target amounts of data.

16
 A touch screen is a computer display screen that is also an
input device. The screens are sensitive to pressure; a user
interacts with the computer by torching pictures or words
on the screen.
 There are three types of touch screen:
1. Resistive:
 A resistive touch screen panel is coated with a thin metallic
electrically conductive and resistive layer that causes a
change in the electrical current which is registered as a
touch event and sent to the controller for processing.
 Resistive touch screen panels are generally more
affordable but offered only 75% of clarity and the layer can
be damaged by sharp objects.
 Resistive touch screen panels are not affected by outside
elements such as dust and water
2. Surface Wave
 Surface Wave technology uses ultrasonic waves that passes
over the touch screen panel.
 When the panel is touched, a portion of the wave is absorbed.
 This change in the ultrasonic waves registers the position of
the touch event and sends this information to the controller
for processing.
 Surface wave touch screen panels are the most advanced of
the three types, but they can be damaged by outside elements.
3. Capacitive
 A Capacitive touch screen panel is coated with a material that
stores electrical charges.
 When the panel is touched, a small amount of charges is
drawn to the point of contact.
 Circuits located at each corner of the panels must be
touched with a finger unlike resistive and surface wave
panels that can use fingers and stylus.
 Capacitive touch screens are not affected by outside
elements and have high clarity.
 Benefits of Touch Screen
 Speed
 Ease of Use
 Everyone’s an Expert in Touch
 Device Size-Having all in-one solutions
 Accessibility
 Durability + Easy to Clean
 Cost Reduction
1.7 Joysticks- is a device used for the proper playing of the
game

1.8 Digital Camera

 With a digital camera you can improve photos after they
are shot, make your own prints at home, and share them
easily over the internet.
 Computers are being used to create multimedia
presentation.
 Digital cameras are being used to add movies to
presentations or for video conferencing across the
internet.

20
 1.9 Synthesizer the Musical Input
 It is an electronic instrument that can create sounds from
different musical instrument's such as horns and wood
winds to other sounds that can not be duplicated with
musical instruments.
 Synthesizer usually consists of a piano type of key board
along with controls to choose the instruments.
1.10 Video Digitizer
 Video digitizer are collection of circuits that can capture
input from a video camera, video cassettes, recorder,
television or other video source and convert it in to digital
signal that can be stored in memory and displayed on
computer screens.

21
Fig: The diagram above shows how the various components of
computer work together.
 2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 The CPU or processor is a microprocessor chip (a silicon chip with
complex circuits) found on the motherboard.
 The motherboard is the main board located inside the system unit
containing the different chips of the computer.
 Directly or indirectly every hardware parts of the computer are
connected and communicated to the motherboard.
 The CPU performs all the system’s calculation and processing of data
and program execution.
 Because of this, there is no computer without CPU.
 Even there are computers with a number of CPUs.
 CPU executes instructions and performs the computers processing
activities.
 It functions the same purpose as the human brain of human being. It is
called the brain of the computer.
 CPU has three parts:
1. Control Unit (CU)
2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
3. Registers 23
 The three parts work together to electronically control the
function of the computer.
 The different parts are interconnected by a cable like
device called bus which is used to facilitate
communications between the parts.
 Buses are used to transfer data, address and control code
(signal).

Main Memory
24
 2.1. Control Unit
 As the name implies it performs on the control functions
of the computer.
 The control unit controls:
 Flow of data and instructions between the CPU and
memory, CPU and Input/Output devices, and CPU and
registers.
 Controls the cycle of fetching machine instructions from
memory and executing them.
 Coordinates the activities of input/output devices.
 Control unit does not execute instruction or it does not
carry out instruction processing by itself but it directs
other processing elements to execute instructions.
 As human brain controls the body, control unit controls
the computer hardware 25
 Control unit:
i) Retrieves instruction from memory.
 This process is called fetch instruction.
ii) After fetching instruction it translates that instruction in
to computer understandable format.
 This process (the process of translating instruction ) is
called decoding.
iii) Finally, sends signals to other computer hardware units
to carry out the instruction.
 Control unit also responsible for determining the next
instruction to be executed by the computer.
 In general it serves as the computer traffic cope.

26
 2. 2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 ALU performs arithmetic and logical operations of the
microprocessor.
 Arithmetic operations includes like addition, subtraction ,
multiplication and division.
 Logical operation is concerned with the comparison of data.
 It includes operators like less than, greater than, equal to, less or
equal to, greater or equal to, different from, etc.
 Eg. If marks >80, grade is “A”
 ALU also performs AND, OR, NOT and EXCLUSIVE-OR
logical operation.
 ALU gets data from the:
 Registers of the microprocessor,
 Processes the data according to the instructions from the control
unit and
 Stores the results in its output registers or memory. 27
 2.3 Registers
 Registers are fast memory locations within the CPU that are used
to create and store the results of CPU operations and other
calculations.
 Registers are paths or conduits that connect the arithmetic logic
unit to the main memory.
 When an instruction loaded from main memory, it is placed first in
the register to wait instructions from the control unit.
 Some of the commonly found registers in most of the
microprocessors include the:
 Program Counter
 Instruction Registers
 Buffer Registers
 Status Register
 Stack Pointer
 General-Purpose Registers
28
 3.1 Program Counter
 Stores the memory address of the next instruction to be
executed
 Hence plays a central role in controlling the sequence of
machine instructions that the processor executes.
 After the instruction is read into the memory, the
program counter is automatically incremented by ‘1’.
 This is of course on the assumption that the instructions
are executed sequentially.
3.2 Instruction Register
 Stores the instructions that is currently being executed.
 The control unit extracts the operation code from the
instruction register, which determines the sequence of
signals necessary to perform the processing required by
the instruction.
29
 3.3 Buffer Register
 Buffer registers interface the microprocessor with its
memory system.
 The two standard buffer registers are:
A) Memory Address Register (MAR)
 is connected to the address pins of the microprocessor.
 It holds the address of the location to or from which data
are to be transferred(absolute memory address of the data
or instruction to be accessed).
B) Memory Buffer Register (MBR).
 MBR, also known as the Memory Data Register.
 is connected to the data pins of the microprocessor.
 it stores all data to be written to or read out of the
addressed location in the memory.
30
 3.4 Status Register
 Stores the status outputs of the result of an
operation.
 And also gives additional information about the
result of an ALU operation.
 The status of bits stored in the status register tells
about the occurrence or nonoccurrence of
different conditions, and one or more bits may be
updated at the end of an operation.
3.5 General-Purpose Registers
 It is used to store instruction/data currently used.

31
 3.6 Stack Pointer
 A stack is a block of memory locations designated for
temporary storage of data.
 Stores the address of a memory location belonging to the
most recent entry in the stack.
 Used to save data of another general-purpose register during
execution of a subroutine or when an interrupt is serviced.
 The data are moved from a general purpose register to the
stack by:
 PUSH instruction at the beginning of a subroutine call, and
 Back to the general register by a POP instruction at the end
of the subroutine call.
 Why microprocessors use a stack? Because it is faster to
move data using PUSH and POP instructions than to move
data to/from memory using a MOVE instruction 32
 The overall processes of CPU include the following
Cycle:
 Fetch: The CPU read instruction/data from the memory
 Decode: The instruction must be decoded or interpret to
determine what action is required
 Execute: The execution of an instruction may require
performing some arithmetic or logical operation on data.
 Store: The result of an execution may require writing
data to memory
 Types of Processors
 There are different types of CPUs with different family groups
provided by different manufacturers.
 The following two factors are important to classify CPUs.
i) Compatibility
 Every processor has its own set of vocabularies to understand
instructions.
 So, software written for one CPU may not work with another.
 Especially CPUs, which are not in the same family, will differ
regarding this.
 CPUs in the same family are most of the time backward
compatible
 Eg: Intel Dual Core CPU is compatible with Core-I3 CPU.
 Because Core-i3 is an improved version of Intel inside Dual
Core CPU and it contains all the instructions understood by
Intel Dual Core CPU.
34
ii) Speed
 Speed of CPU is one factor that determines the
performance of the computer.
 But there are also other factors that determines the
performance of the computer such as:
 Amount of memory or RAM,
 Type and speed of the video card,
 Hard disk’s speed, free space, and fragmentation
 How many programs are running, or multitasking, at the
same time.
 The speed of CPU is the speed of its internal clock.
 It is measured in hertz(Hz).
 Hertz is the number of cycles per second.
 1Hz= 1 cycle per second
 20Hz=20 cycles per second
 Large units are KHz (kilo hertz), MHz (mega hertz), GHz
(giga hertz), etc
 Current CPUs are as fast as 2-3 GHz(2-3 billion cycles
per second).
 Note:
 Actually numbers expressed in Hz to specify speed may
not show the exact performance of the system or the
computer.
 Because the internal architecture of CPUs really has got a
role in the performance of computer system.
 For example, we can not say with full confidence the
400MHz CPU is faster than the 350 MHz CPU unless and
otherwise the architecture of the CPUs are considered.
36
 Memory: The Processing Unit of the CPU
 Mainly memory is categorized in to two: RAM and ROM.
1. RAM(Random Access Memory)
 is a main memory mainly used to store program instructions and data
currently used by the CPU.
 As a result it is called working storage or processing Unit of the CPU.
 Usually RAM stores the following three information's:
 Operating System Software instruction
 Application Software instruction
 Data that is being processed
 RAM is the memory which is directly accessible by the control unit
and ALU, which are the components of the central processing unit.
 RAM is a memory that is logically divided in to many equal sized cells
called memory locations.
 Each memory location has got a unique address and every memory
locations will be accessed using these unique addresses.
37
 You can think of memory as a group of storage locations
labeled from zero up as shown in the following figure.
 The label of a location is called its address.
 The computer can get the contents of any storage
location using the address.
 Each cell can store either a 0 or a 1, called a binary digit
or bit.
 Properties of RAM
i) RAM is volatile- meaning any data on RAM will be lost
when power is turned OFF and close the current program
you are running.
ii) RAM is read-write memory- can read(retrieve) data from
RAM and again write(store) to RAM.
 In RAM, each memory position can be sensed (read) or
changed (written) so it is also called read- write memory
iii) RAM is upgradable memory.
iv) RAM is a memory that can be randomly accessed-you can
access any byte without touching the preceding bytes.
 That is why it is called RAM because each memory location
can be accessed randomly using memory address.
 Each unit in RAM has memory address by which it can be
easily accessed or referenced
39
 As stated earlier the size of RAM is one factors to
determine the performance of the computer.
 The size or capacity of RAM is increased through time
particularly with the upgrading of the CPU processor
speed to make compatible among each other.
 The following are the most common capacity or size of
the memory:
 128 MB
 256MB
 512MB
 1GB
 2GB
 4GB and
 8GB currently 40
 2. ROM(Read Only Memory)
 ROM is a memory used to store basic instructions for booting
the computer and loading the operating system.
 ROM contains special instruction called BIOS that the computer
uses when it is turned on.
 Data on ROM is etched when it is fabricated and because of this
ROM sometimes referred to as firmware, which is something
between hardware and software.
 The following are some of the properties of ROM:
i) ROM is non-volatile
 Data stored on ROM will not be lost when power is interrupted
or when the program is closed.
ii) ROM is read-only-memory
 We can read (retrieve) data from ROM but we cannot
write(store) data in to ROM.
 Data on ROM cannot be deleted or modified and that is why it
contains the boot up instructions. 41
iii) It can be randomly accessed
 You can access any byte without touching preceding bytes.
 The following table shows a short summary about the
different types of read-only memory used in a computer:
ROM Types ROM Types Description

Read-only memory Information is written to a ROM chip when it

ROM is manufactured. A ROM chip cannot be
chips erased or re-written and can become obsolete.

Programmable Information is written to a PROM chip after

PROM it is manufactured. A PROM chip cannot be
read-only memory erased or re-written.
Erasable Information is written to an EPROM chip
after it is manufactured. An EPROM chip can
EPROM programmable be erased with exposure to UV light. Special
read-only memory equipment is required.
Electrically Information is written to an EEPROM chip
erasable after it is manufactured. EEPROM chips are
EEPROM also called Flash ROMs. An EEPROM chip
programmable can be erased and re-written without having
read-only memory to remove the chip from the computer. 42
 Cache Memory
 Cache memory is a speedy memory used to speed up the
system.
 How cache memory is used to increase the performance
(speed) of the computer?
 When programs and data are needed by the CPU, they
will be read(fetched) from RAM.
 If there is a cache memory:
 The fetched instructions/data are also copied to cache
memory.
 When those instructions/data are needed again:
 They will not be fetched from the external RAM.
 But will be taken from the internal cache memory with a
significant and relatively more speed.
 3. Output Devices
 Output devices are used to get data out of a computer so that it can
be examined, analyzed or distributed to others.
 It converts information from machine understandable form to a
human understandable form.
 The output are o f two types :
1. Soft copy
 Which is displayed on monitor, projector, or similar device.
2. Hard Copy
 output printed on paper, for example using printer or plotter.
 The following are some of the commonly used types of output
devices:
 Visual display unit (VDU) or monitor or screen
 Printers (Impact and Non-impact printer)
 Plotters
 Voice (audio) Response Unit or Speaker 44
 3.1 Monitor
 Monitor is the most frequently used type of output device.
 It consists of a display surface called screen which
displays output to the user.
 Image is displayed on monitors using pattern of lighted
dots
 Each of these lighted dots is called pixel a short form of
picture element.
 Each pixel’s position and color is described by bits.
 The following are factors that determines the quality of
the monitor or screen:
a) Size
 The size of a monitor is measured diagonally across the
screen, just like TVs.
 Common monitor sizes are 15, 17, 19, and 21 inches.
 The most popular monitor size is currently 17 inches. 45
b) Resolution
 Every image on the screen is composed of tiny dots(single points).
 These points are called pixels(short for picture elements).
 So, the screen is divided in to thousands(millions) of pixels which are
arranged in rows and columns.
 Since the distance between the pixels is so small, we cannot identify
the separate pixels by our eyes.
 This results in a continuous image.
 Resolution refers to the number of pixels that can be displayed on the
monitor screen.
 Resolution is always be written as:
Number of pixels horizontally x Number of pixels vertically
 Example: Resolution=600 x 800:
 Meaning there are 600 pixels horizontally and 800 pixels vertically and
a total of 480,000 pixels.
 As the resolution increases, the quality of the display increases and the
image will be sharper and we can see more details of pictures. 46
c) Dot Pitch:
 Dot pitch refers to the distance between each pixel, or dot, on the screen,
as measured in millimeters (mm).
 The smaller the dot pitch, the closer the dots, and the sharper the image
is.
 If you’re in the market for a monitor try to find one with a 0.28 mm or
less.
d) Refresh Rate:
 The refresh rate determines how quickly the monitor redraws, or updates,
the image on the screen.
 Higher refresh rates are better, since they flicker less and are easier on
the eyes.
 The refresh rate is measured in herz (Hz), or the number of times per
second the monitor redraws the entire screen.
 Example: If we say the refresh rate of a monitor is 72Hz per second, then
this implies the display will be refreshed 72 times per second.
 If you’re buying a new monitor, make sure to get one with a refresh rate
of 72 Hz or better.
e) Color Depth(Bit Depth)
 Color depth is the number of colors that are displayed on the
screen at once.
 It is determined by the number of bits used to represent a
pixel.
 As the number of bits used to represent a pixel is increased,
then the number of colors that a pixel can display will
increase.
 For example, if 8 bits are used to represent a pixel, then
28=256 colors can be displayed by each pixel.
 Example Monochrome monitor: one bit is used for one
pixel.
 Therefore, they have only two types of colors(21=2).
 Most modern monitors use 24 bits to represent a pixel.
 This implies 224 possible colors can be displayed using one
 Reading Assignment
 Depending on the factors that determines the quality or
sharpness of a monitor, we can classify monitor’s in to
three types: Discuss these three types of
monitors( Monochrome monitor, Gray Scale Monitor
and Color monitor) and describe its differences clearly.
 Types of Monitors
 Depending on the types of technology used, we can divide
monitors in to two:
1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
2. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
 CRT is similar in size and technology to televisions.
 It uses electron guns that emit electrons, these electrons are
directed towards phosphorous coated screen
 The phosphorous coat glows (emits light) when hit by
electron from electron guns, this creating visible things that
we see.
 The monitors of most desktop computers are CRT monitors
 The main disadvantages of CRT monitors are their large
size and high power consumption. 50
 2.Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitors
 Crystal display is most commonly used in digital watches
clocks, calculators, etc.
 In computer, they are commonly used for portable
computers. Eg. lab top
 Liquid crystal uses liquid crystal for display purpose, not
electron guns.
 The liquid crystal is deposited between sheets of
polarizing material.
 The advantages over CRT Monitor is:-
 Small size which makes it easy to transport
 Consumes less power which makes it suitable for lab top

51
 Monitor and CPU
 In one way or another the monitor is connected to the
system unit.
 As a result, it is connected to the motherboard, or
specifically the CPU.
 The interface between the display and CPU is the video
display adapter(video display card) or simply video
adapter(card).
 The video card is a circuit board that is found separately as
an expansion card or embedded on the motherboard.
 The video card means much to the monitor.
 Because it determines the very important characteristics of
the display like resolution, number of colors and speed
with which images appear on the screen.
 The video card has a component such as video
RAM(VRAM).
 The VRAM is important because it will hold the image
displayed on the monitor.
 And that is why the video card determines the resolution and
color depth of the monitor.
 Because each pixel indicated in the resolution will be
represented by a minimum of one bit on the VRAM.
 Example: If one bit is used to replace one pixel, then the
monitor will be monochrome.
 This bit will have two possible values representing the two
colors.
 If bit is 0, the color is black and if bit is 1, it is white—
(determining color depth).
 If more than one bit are used for a single pixel, you can have
more than two colors.
 For example, if a 4 bits are used, 24=16 different possibilities
will give you 16 different colors.
 Example: Usually resolution and color depth are written
together like 600x800, 256 color. What is the maximum
total number of bits needed to display images on this
particular monitor?
Total number of bits needed=3,840,000 bits
=480,000 bytes
=468.75 KB
 Therefore, we need at least 468.75KB of VRAM to have
such resolution and color depth mentioned above.
 3.2 Printer
 Printer is a device that enables us to produce a hardcopy of
data or information.
 They have varying speeds, capabilities, and printing methods.
 Based on the way they print, printers are divided in to two:
1. Impact Printers
2. Non-Impact Printers
1. Impact Printers
 Impact printers transfer printable material on to paper by
striking paper ribbon, and character together.
 Most of such printers take continues form of paper.
 The most commonly used impact printers are dot- matrix
printers
 The combination of small dots printed closely forms a
character.
 Line and character printers are also examples of impact
printer 55
 2. Non-Impact Printers
 They print without having a mechanism that strikes a paper
 They print by spraying ink or by using heat and pressure to
fuse black powder on to paper.
 The most commonly used non-impact printers are
 Ink jet printer
 Laser printer
 Thermal printer
a) Ink jet printer
 An ink jet printer sprays tiny drops of ink on to paper
 The print head of such printers contains a nozzle which has
many holes.
 Ink is propelled by heat or pressure through the nozzle
holes and form character or image on the screen
56
 This type of printer is :-
 Produce high quality print
 Quiet because the paper is not struck
 Heavy weight paper is recommended
b) Laser Printer
 They work similarly to photocopying machine
 They convert data from computer in to a laser beam (kind of
light).
 Why they are called laser printer?
 Because they use mirrors to direct light on to a drum which in
turn produce characters on paper.
 The drum is light sensitive material that becomes charged when
it is hit by light.
 The charged area of the drum attracts ink from toner and the
ink is transferred on to paper.
 A heating material heats the ink and attaches it on to the paper.
 It produces high quality print 57
C. Thermal printer
 Thermal printers use heat to transfer inks from ink sheets
on to printing surface.
 They produce high – quality print
 Because of this they are used to produce high quality color
art work and text.
 They can use plain paper but produce best result on
chemically treated papers.
3.3. Plotters
 Plotters are used to produce high-quality drawing such as
bar charts, maps, architectural drawings and three-
dimensional drawings.
 It can produce high quality multicolor documents
 It can print on large size papers, which most printers can’t
handle.

58
 4. Storage Devices
 Two types of storage devices are available in computer:
1. Primary Storage Device-temporary storage device
2. Secondary Storage Device- stores data permanently
 We describe clearly about the first type of storage device while
we are discussing about RAM.
 Here we will discuss only the secondary storage device part of
the storage devices.
4. 2. Secondary Storage Device
 Secondary storage (also called auxiliary storage) takes many
forms
 It includes punched cards, punched paper tape, magnetic tape,
magnetic disk and optical disc.
 Based on information access, secondary storage devices re
divided in to two:
4.1 Sequential access:- information is accessed sequentially
 To access information on such media, we start from the
beginning and read through to the end.
 Jumping to some part is not possible.
 Eg:- Tape recorder cassette 59
 The following are examples of sequential access storage
media:
1. Punched Cards
 Punched cards are one of the oldest and most familiar data
storage devices.
 There are two types of punched cards, 80 columns and 96
columns and the first one is a standard punched card.
 Data is stored on punched cards by cutting parts of the paper
out and leaving other parts intact.
 The cut part (hole) may represent binary 1 and the intact
part represents binary 0.
2. Punched Paper Tape
 Punched paper tape is a continuous strip of paper used to
store data in much the same manner as punched cards.
 The paper tape is approximately one inch wide and can have
either six or eight channels. 60
 3. Magnetic tapes
 During 1950s and 1960’s magnetic tape was the primary
method of storing large amount of data
 Today they are used primarily for back up purposes.
 Magnetic tapes are a particularly popular form of
secondary storage because of their high data density (the
number of bytes of instruction per inch of tape) and their
convenience in handling.
 Magnetic tapes are approximately one half inch wide are
made of Mylar-based plastic film which can be
magnetized.
 Data are store on a magnetic tape by running the tape
over the electromagnetic called read-write head which
magnetizes small spots on the tape.
61
 2. Random Access
 Random access storage devices can access data in any
order.
 You can access the first or the last part of information by
jumping others.
 The most common are: Magnetic(Hard Disk), Flash Disk
and Optical Storage Devices.
2.1 Hard Disks
 A high capacity magnetic disk made up of metal which
can be fixed in the system unit of the computer.
 Serves as a secondary storage.
 Enables very fast accessibility of data.
 The disks, which are usually grouped together into a disk
pack are separated by small air spaces to allow access for
read/write head. 62
 Each disk has approximately 200 tracks on which
information is stored.
 Tracks of the small number on all adjacent disks are
referred to as a cylinder of that disk.
 The disk pack is mounted on a magnetic disk drive which
rotates the disk at speed up to 1,000 revolutions per
second.
 The total collection of tracks available on one movement
of the access mechanism is known as cylinder.
 The amount of time it takes to retrieve (or store) data from
(or to) disk is called the disk access time.
2.1 Flash Disk
 is a type of data storage media integrated with a USB
(universal serial bus) interface.
 USB flash drives are typically removable and rewritable.
 Storage capacities typically range from 32 MB to 32 GB
with steady improvements in size and price per gigabyte.
 USB flash drives offer potential advantages over other
portable storage devices.
 They are more compact, faster, hold much more data,
have a more durable design, and are more reliable for
lack of moving parts.
 Additionally, it has become increasingly common for
computers to ship without floppy disk drives. 
 2.3 Optical Storage Devices
 Optical storage is a newer storage technology using a high-power
laser beam to burn small holes in a disk's surface coating.
 Data is represented by the presence and absence of holes in the
disk’s surface.
 Optical media are more durable than tape and less vulnerable to
environmental conditions.
 On the other hand, they tend to be slower than typical hard disks,
and hold less data.
 Compact Disk (CD)
 A compact disc (CD) is an optical disk used to store digital data.
 It was originally developed for storing digital audio.
Types of CDs
 The different types of CDs include: CD-ROM, CD-R, and CD-
RW.
1. CD-ROM (Compact Disc – Read Only Memory):
 is a version of the CD that allows the information to be stored so
that the user can only read from the disks.
 Once data is recorded on a CD-ROM, new data cannot be stored
and the disc cannot be erased.
 Although CD-ROMs look like music discs, they can only be used
with a computer equipped with a CD-ROM drive.
2. CD-R (Compact Disc - Recordable):
 refers to compact disks that can be recorded only once, but read
many times.
 If the recorded content is no longer wanted, additional material
can be recorded only on the remaining space on the disk.
3. CD-RW (Compact Disc - Rewritable):
 is an extension of CD-R whereby you can rewrite data or audio
to the same CD many times.
 Not all CD drives can read CD-RWs.
4. Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)
 DVD is an optical disc storage media that can be used for storing data,
including movies with high video and sound quality.
 DVDs resemble CD: their physical dimensions are the same – 12 cm or the
mini 8cm - but they are encoded in a different format.
 This enables DVDs to store more data than that of CDs.
 A typical DVD can often hold more data than 6 CDs.
 The most common Types of DVDs are:
4.1 ƒDVD-ROM:
 These DVDs are read-only disks.
 They are accessed using a special DVD drive attached to a personal
computer.
 They are often used for movies (which are more specifically referred to as
DVD-Video) and computer games.
4.2 ƒDVD-R:
 It offers a write-once, read-many times storage format similar to CD-R, but
can hold more information than a CD-R.
4.3 DVD-RW:
 A recordable DVD format similar to CD-RW.
 Activity
1. How can the size of the VRAM determines the resolution
and color depth of the monitor?
2. Why memory is counted as part of the processing unit?
3. Mention the main difference between RAM and ROM
4. Explain the difference between Screen Savers and
Energy Star Compliance? And describe the importance of
this two technology to the computer?
5. Describe and explain the factors that determines the
performance of the computer?
6. Describe and explain those factors that determines the
quality or sharpness of the monitor or screen?
7. Mention and explain the processing cycle of the CPU?