03/13/2021

Environmental Monitoring By Fredrick Maponga

Environmental Monitoring

 Why carry out environmental monitoring?

 How do you carry out environmental monitoring?
 Who carries out environmental monitoring?
 Who uses the results of environmental monitoring?
 What tools/instruments are used for environmental monitor
ing?
 What parameters are considered during environmental monit
oring?
Environmental Monitoring

Introduction
*Environmental issues have never received as much a
ttention as in recent years due to emerging challe
nges like pollution, global warming, climate chang
e, erratic rain fall & frequent occurrence of floo
ding e.t.c
*These challenges have wide ranging and mostly dama
ging impacts on the environment, biodiversity, huma
n health, wildlife and agricultural production
*The global trend currently is emergence of strict
er environmental laws by governments to try and pro
tect the environment
Environmental Monitoring/Environmental Comp
liance Monitoring:

-is the systematic sampling of air, water, soil and biota in

order to observe and study the environment
Or
-describes the processes and activities that need to take pla
ce to characterise and monitor the quality of the environment
Or
-continuous process of obtaining information to determine if
the parties required under law to control polluting discharge
s and emissions are doing so
N.B:
 the process should allow derivation of knowledge for futur
e planning
 to be able to make predictions on environmental conditions
 Why monitor?
 Monitoring can be conducted for many purposes. Five major purpo
ses are to:
 characterize waters and identify changes or trends in water qua
lity over time;
 identify specific existing or emerging water quality problems;
 gather information to design specific pollution prevention or r
emediation programs;
 determine whether program goals -- such as compliance with poll
ution regulations or implementation of effective pollution cont
rol actions -- are being met; and
 respond to emergencies, such as spills and floods.
 Some types of monitoring activities meet several of these purpo
ses at once; others are specifically designed for one reason
 Objectives of Environment
al Monitoring
 Ensure clean, safe and health environment i.e. water, air and soil
 Characterisation of pollutants on the environment and identify changes or trends
in water quality over time
 Legal compliance by industrialists, institutions e.t.c
 Decision making by parliaments
 Research purposes
 identify specific existing or emerging water quality problems;
 gather information to design specific pollution prevention or remediation progra
ms;
 determine whether program goals -- such as compliance with pollution regulations
or implementation of effective pollution control actions -- are being met; and
 respond to emergencies, such as spills and floods.
 Some types of monitoring activities meet several of these purposes at once; othe
rs are specifically designed for one reason
 To co-relate with a suspected source of contamination.
 To establish a base-line of exposure.
Purpose of Environmental
Monitoring
Methods of Environmental
Monitoring
♫ There are no core indicators

♫ The "best" method is not necessarily the appropriate method

♫ Indicators must be chosen on the basis of the hypotheses of the program

♫ Field and analytical methods must be comparable in terms of precision

♫ Analysis cannot compensate for poor experimental design

♫ Design, sampling, analysis, and reporting need to be integrated

♫ Quality control is a necessary component of any sampling program

Environmental Sampling

 Appropriate statistical sampling method is of p

rime importance for the quality of data and for
the evaluation and the interpretation of results
 A sampling plan should always be done before sam
pling takes place, such a plan must encompass :W
hat will be sampled? Time of sampling? Types of
samples? Sample size & location, population size
, parameters to be determined
 Environment is so much dynamic as it continuousl
y changes, it is fundamental to consider changes
in pollutants concentration due to various cause
s
Types of Sampling

 Sampling Methods can be classified into one of t

wo categories:
 Probability Sampling: Sample has a known probabi
lity of being selected
 Non-probability Sampling: Sample does not have k
nown probability of being selected as in conveni
ence or voluntary response surveys
Types of Sampling

 In probability sampling it is possible to both d

etermine which sampling units belong to which sa
mple and the probability that each sample will b
e selected. The following sampling methods are e
xamples of probability sampling:
 Simple Random Sampling (SRS)
 Stratified Sampling
 Cluster Sampling
 Systematic Sampling
 Multistage Sampling (in which some of the method
s above are combined in stages)
Types of Sampling

 Stratified Sampling is possible when it makes se

nse to partition the population into groups base
d on a factor that may influence the variable th
at is being measured.   These groups are then ca
lled strata.  An individual group is called a st
ratum.  With stratified sampling one should:
 partition the population into groups (strata)
 obtain a simple random sample from each group (s
tratum)
 collect data on each sampling unit that was rand
omly sampled from each group (stratum) 
Types of Sampling

 Cluster Sampling is very different from Stratifi

ed Sampling. With cluster sampling one should
 divide the population into groups (clusters).
 obtain a simple random sample of so many cluster
s from all possible clusters.
 obtain data on every sampling unit in each of th
e randomly selected clusters.
 It is important to note that, unlike with the st
rata in stratified sampling, the clusters should
be microcosms, rather than subsections, of the p
opulation.  
Types of Sampling

 Non-probability Sampling
 The following sampling methods that are listed i
n your text are types of non-probability samplin
g that should be avoided:
 volunteer samples
 haphazard (convenience) samples
 Since such non-probability sampling methods are
based on human choice rather than random selecti
on, statistical theory cannot explain how they m
ight behave and potential sources of bias are ra
mpant.
 Types of Sampling

 Judgmental sampling would concentrate on the are

a around the outfall.
 Taking a few samples at locations chosen by the
person doing the sampling would be termed haphaz
ard sampling.
 Finally, a continuous monitor may eliminate the
time factor by giving real-time measurements all
the time. This is still a sampling process, howe
ver, as the location of the sensor must serve as
a typical location to give information about a l
arger area.
 Types of samples

 Grab sample: A grab sample is a discrete sample

which is collected at a specific location at a c
ertain point in time.
- If the environmental medium varies spatially or t
emporally, then a single grab sample is not repr
esentative and more samples need to be collected
.
 Composite sample: A composite sample is made by
thoroughly mixing several grab samples.
-The whole composite may be measured or random sam
ples from the composites may be withdrawn and me
asured.
 Water Sampling

 There are many ways to monitor water conditions:

 Chemical
 Biological
 Physical
 Monitoring can be conducted at:
 regular sites ("fixed stations") on a continuous basis
;
 at selected sites on an as-needed basis, to answer spe
cific questions, or to characterize a watershed; on a
temporary or seasonal basis (for example, during the s
ummer at bathing beaches); at random sites throughout
an area or state; or on an emergency basis (such as af
ter a spill).
 Water Sampling

 Water samples can come from many sources:

-ground water(monitoring wells or hydro punch, spring
s, underground mines)
-precipitation (rain or snow)
-surface water (lakes, river, runoff, etc.)
-ice or glacial melt, saline water, estuarian water a
nd brines
-waste water (domestic, landfill leachates, mine runo
ff, etc.)
-industrial process water and
-drinking water.
 Water Sampling

 Water samples are mainly collected for either ch

emical analysis or bacteriological analysis
 The sampling bottles should be clean
*Sampling for Microbiology Analysis:-metal caps
-remove any external fittings, grease or slime with
a clean swab
-disinfect by flaming tap thoroughly at the nozzle
and leave the tap to run for 2-3 minutes
-allow the water to fill the sterilised glass bottl
e to shoulder level
-deliver samples to lab within 24hrs
 Water Sampling

N.B: for plastic taps, where flaming is not possib

le
-disinfect inside and outside of tap by swabbing w
ith 70% ethanol, methylated spirit or 0.35% sodi
um hypochlorite
*Sampling for chemical analysis: composite samplin
g
-samples are collected into 2litre plastic contain
ers
-sample beginning at the most downstream station f
irst and work upstream to avoid contamination
Water sample labelling

 Label the sample bottle with following informati

on using tags or stickers:
-sample point number
-source of sample
-date and time of sampling
-location
-name of sampler
-reasons for analysis
-type of analysis
-treatment(if any)
Water sample analysis

 Water samples are analysed for following paramet

ers: pH, hardness, oil, grease, BOD, COD, pestic
ides, conductivity, temperature, odour e.t.c
 Water samples are analysed to determine suitabil
ity of water for human use, like domestic
 The parameters are expected to meet certain stan
dards for water to be considered safe
 Water with parameters outside permitted standard
s is considered unsafe, corrective measures are
taken before use
 Solids/Soil sampling

 Soil sampling is most challenging compared to water sa

mples because soil is heterogeneous containing soil pa
rticles , trapped liquids and gases
 Soil sampling is normal done when a spillage has occur
red, since soil sampling involves digging and taking o
ut of the soil, special attention is needed on the too
ls to be used, otherwise contamination may happen when
the instrument is scratched off during digging
 Soil sampling devices must be made of tough material w
hich can be forced into the soil, stainless steel devi
ces are mainly used
 Some of equipment used for soil sampling include: trow
el, soil augers, shovels, scooper
 Solids/ Soil sampling

 Equipment used:
 Air Sampling
 Air samples could be from atmospheric/ambient air, flue g
ases, exhausts
 Atmospheric pollution has far reaching consequences like
climate change and respiratory diseases to human beings e
.g. Inorganic gases : Carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide, Ni
trogen oxides
 Some instruments are used to measure occupational exposur
es
 Examples of instruments used in air sampling include drag
ger tubes, dust monitors, flue gas analysers
 Samples in the Lab

 Samples in the lab may further be reduced into s

maller size, the reduced sample is prepared by t
aking a representative portion of the original s
ample, usually by a mixing and dividing process
 These processes depend strongly on the form of t
he sample, analytical technique to be used, type
of instrument for analysis and the analytes bein
g sought
SAMPLE------SUBSAMPLE-------TEST SAMPLES-------
TEST PORTIONS----TEST SOLUTION------TREATED SOLU
TION------ALIQUOTS
Examples of instruments u
sed in analysis
 Flame Ionisation Detectors[FIDs]-organic vapours
 Photo Ionisation Detectors[PIDs]-organic vapours
 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy[AA]-metals
 Gas chromatography[GC]
Conclusion

♣ It provides scientific raw data for detecting long-t

erm changes in the monitored environment over time.

♣ Monitoring allows the early identification of potent

ially significant effects (i.e., early trends which
could become serious)

♣ Protection of human health and life.

♣ Progressively improving the state of the environment

.