Artificial

Artificial Intelligence
Intelligence

Introduction

Introduction 1
 Exercise:
Exercise: Intelligent
Intelligent Systems
Systems
 select a task that you believe requires intelligence
 examples: playing chess, solving puzzles, translating from
English to German, finding a proof for a theorem
 for that task, sketch a computer-based system that
tries to solve the task
 architecture, components, behavior
 what are the computational methods your system
relies on
 e.g. data bases, matrix multiplication, graph traversal
 what are the main challenges
 how do humans tackle the task

Introduction 2
 Examples
Examples of
of Definitions
Definitions of
of AI
AI
 cognitive approaches
 emphasis on the way systems work or “think”
 requires insight into the internal representations and processes of
the system
 behavioral approaches
 only activities observed from the outside are taken into account
 human-like systems
 try to emulate human intelligence
 rational systems
 systems that do the “right thing”
 idealized concept of intelligence

Introduction 3
 Systems
Systems That
That Think
Think Like
Like Humans
Humans
 “The exciting new effort to make computers think …
machines with minds, in the full and literal sense”
[Haugeland, 1985]
 “[The automation of] activities that we associate with
human thinking, activities such as decision-making,
problem solving, learning …”
[Bellman, 1978]
 “The art of creating machines that perform functions
that require intelligence when performed by people”
[Kurzweil, 1990]

Introduction 4
 Systems
Systems That
That Think
Think Rationally
Rationally
 “The study of mental faculties through the use of
computational models”
[Charniak and McDermott, 1985]
 “The study of the computations that make it possible
to perceive, reason, and act”
[Winston, 1992]

Introduction 5
 Systems
Systems That
That Act
Act Rationally
Rationally
 “A field of study that seeks to explain and emulate
intelligent behavior in terms of computational
processes”
[Schalkhoff, 1990]
 “The branch of computer science that is concerned
with the automation of intelligent behavior”
[Luger and Stubblefield, 1993]

Introduction 6
 Cognitive
Cognitive Modeling
Modeling
 tries to construct theories of how the human mind
works
 uses computer models from AI and experimental
techniques from psychology
 most AI approaches are not directly based on
cognitive models
 often difficult to translate into computer programs
 performance problems

Introduction 7
 Rational
Rational Thinking
Thinking
 based on abstract “laws of thought”
 usually with mathematical logic as tool
 problems and knowledge must be translated into
formal descriptions
 the system uses an abstract reasoning mechanism
to derive a solution
 serious real-world problems may be substantially
different from their abstract counterparts

Introduction 8
 Rational
Rational Agents
Agents
 an agent that does “the right thing”
 it achieves its goals according to what it knows
 perceives information from the environment
 may utilize knowledge and reasoning to select actions
 performs actions that may change the environment

Introduction 9
 Behavioral
Behavioral Agents
Agents
 an agent that exhibits some behavior required to
perform a certain task
 may simply map inputs onto actions
 simple behaviors may be assembled into more complex
ones

Introduction 10
Foundations
Foundations of
of Artificial
Artificial Intelligence
Intelligence
 Philosophy
 theories of language, reasoning, learning, the mind
 Mathematics
 formalization of tasks and problems (logic, computation,
probability)
 Psychology
 Behaviorism: only observable and measurable percepts
and responses are considered
 cognitive psychology: the brain stores and processes
information, cognitive processes describe internal activities
of the brain

Introduction 11
Foundations
Foundations of
of Artificial
Artificial Intelligence
Intelligence Cont.
Cont.

 Computer science
 provides tools for testing theories
 programmability
 speed
 storage
 actions
 Linguistics
 understanding and analysis of language
 knowledge representation

Introduction 12
 Conception
Conception (late
(late 40s,
40s, early
early 50s)
50s)
 artificial neurons (McCulloch and Pitts, 1943)
 learning in neurons (Hebb, 1949)
 chess programs (Shannon, 1950; Turing, 1953)
 neural computer (Minsky and Edmonds, 1951)

Introduction 13
 Baby
Baby steps
steps (late
(late 1950s)
1950s)
 demonstration of programs solving simple problems
that require some intelligence
 development of some basic concepts and methods
 Lisp (McCarthy, 1958)
 formal methods for knowledge representation and
reasoning

Introduction 14
 (early
(early 1960s)
1960s)
 General Problem Solver (Newell and Simon, 1961)
 Shakey the robot (SRI)
 Algebraic problems (Bobrow, 1967)
 neural networks (Widrow and Hoff, 1960; Rosenblatt,
1962; Winograd and Cowan, 1963)
 algorithms (Friedberg, 1958)

Introduction 15
 (late
(late 60s,
60s, early
early 70s)
70s)
 neural networks can learn, but not very much
(Minsky and Papert, 1969)
 expert systems are used in some real-life domains
 knowledge representation schemes become useful

Introduction 16
 AI
AI gets
gets aa job
job (early
(early 80s)
80s)
 commercial applications of AI systems
 R1 expert system for configuration of DEC computer
systems (1981)
 expert system shells
 AI machines and tools

Introduction 17
 (late
(late 80s)
80s)
 after all, neural networks can learn more --
in multiple layers (Rumelhart and McClelland, 1986)
 hidden Markov models help with speech problems
 planning becomes more systematic (Chapman,
1987)

Introduction 18
 (90s)
(90s)
 handwriting and speech recognition work
 AI is in the driver’s seat (Pomerleau, 1993)

Introduction 19
 Intelligent
Intelligent Agents
Agents appear
appear (mid-90s)
(mid-90s)
 distinction between hardware emphasis (robots) and
software emphasis (softbots)
 agent architectures
 situated agents
 embedded in real environments with continuous inputs
 Web-based agents

Introduction 20
 Chapter
Chapter Summary
Summary
 introduction to important concepts and terms
 relevance of Artificial Intelligence
 influence from other fields
 historical development of the field of Artificial
Intelligence

Introduction 21