CHAPTER 3

Circuit Theorems
CIRCUIT THEOREMS OVERVIEW
• Introduction
• Linearity
• Superposition
• Source Transformation
• Thévenin and Norton Equivalents
• Maximum Power Transfer

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INTRODUCTION

A large Simplify
complex circuits circuit analysis

Circuit Theorems
‧Thevenin’s theorem ‧ Norton theorem
‧Circuit linearity ‧ Superposition
‧source transformation ‧ max. power transfer

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LINEARITY PROPERTY
A linear element or circuit satisfies the properties of
• Additively: requires that the response to a sum
of inputs is the sum of the responses to each input
applied separately.
If v1 = i1R and v2 = i2R
then applying (i1 + i2)
v = (i1 + i2) R = i1R + i2R = v1 + v2

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LINEARITY PROPERTY
  Homogeneity:
If you multiply the input (i.e. current) by some
constant K, then the output response (voltage) is
scaled by the same constant.
If v1 = i1R
then K v1 =K i1R

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LINEARITY PROPERTY
• A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly
related (or directly proportional) to its input.

V0
I0 v

Suppose vs = 10 V gives i = 2 A. According to the

linearity principle, vs = 5 V will give i = 1 A.
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LINEARITY PROPERTY -
EXAMPLE
• Solve for vo as a function of Vs

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LINEARITY PROPERTY –
EXAMPLE (CONTINUED)

 Is vo a linear function of Vs ?
 If we had solved the circuit for Vs = 10V, could we
find vo for Vs = 20V without having to reanalyze
the circuit?

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Example : Linearity & Circuit
Analysis

 Solve for vo as a function of Vs and Is

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EXAMPLE : LINEARITY & CIRCUIT
ANALYSIS (CONT.)

 If Is = 0, then vo is a linear function of Vs

 If Vs = 0, then vo is a linear function of Is
 This holds true in general
 When used for circuit analysis, this is called
superposition

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SUPERPOSITION
• The superposition principle states that the voltage
across (or current through) an element in a linear
circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across
(or currents through) that element due to each
independent source acting alone.

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 STEPS TO APPLY SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source.
Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active
source using nodal or mesh analysis.
• Turn off voltages sources = short voltage sources;
make it equal to zero voltage
• Turn off current sources = open current sources;
make it equal to zero current
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all
the contributions due to the independent sources.
• Dependent sources are left intact.
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SUPERPOSITION - PROBLEM
• Calculate the value of I0

12V
2kW 4mA
– +

2mA 1kW 2kW

I0

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2MA SOURCE CONTRIBUTION

2kW

2mA 1kW 2kW

I’0

I’0 = -4/3 mA

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4MA SOURCE CONTRIBUTION

2kW 4mA

1kW 2kW
I’’0

I’’0 = 0
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12V SOURCE CONTRIBUTION

12V
2kW
– +

1kW 2kW
I’’’0

I’’’0 = -4 mA

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FINAL RESULT

I’0 = -4/3 mA
I’’0 = 0
I’’’0 = -4 mA

I0 = I’0+ I’’0+ I’’’0 = -16/3 mA

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EXAMPLE : SUPERPOSITION

Solve for vo using superposition

First, find the contribution due to the
10V source.
This means we must turn off the current
source.
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How do you turn off a current source?
EXAMPLE : SUPERPOSITION
(CONT.)

Solve for vo due to the 10V source

Second, find the contribution due to the
2mA source.
This means we must turn off the voltage
source.
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How do you turn off a voltage source?
EXAMPLE : SUPERPOSITION
(CONT.)

Solve for vo due to the 2mA source

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EXAMPLE : SUPERPOSITION (CONT.)

Finally, solve for vo by adding the

contributions due to both sources.
What if the 10V source had been a 20V
source. Is there an easy way to find vo in this
case?
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EXAMPLE : SUPERPOSITION

Use the principle of superposition to find vo.

We will find the contribution due to the
35V source first
So we must first turn off the current 22
EXAMPLE : SUPERPOSITION
(CONT.)

Solve for vo with the 7mA source turned off

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EXAMPLE : SUPERPOSITION
(CONT.)

Solve for vo with the 35V source turned off

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SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
• A source transformation is the process of replacing
a voltage source vs in series with a resistor R by a
current source is in parallel with a resistor R, or vice
versa

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SOURCE TRANSFORMATION

vs
vs  is R or is 
R
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SOURCE TRANSFORMATION

Vs  Rs I s Vs
Is 
Rs

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SOURCE TRANSFORMATION
• Equivalent sources can be used to simplify the
analysis of some circuits.
• A voltage source in series with a resistor is
transformed into a current source in parallel with a
resistor.
• A current source in parallel with a resistor is
transformed into a voltage source in series with a
resistor.

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EXAMPLE
• Use source transformation to find vo in the circuit in
Fig.

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EXAMPLE

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 EXAMPLE
we use current division in Fig. (c) to get
2
i (2)  0.4A
28
and

vo  8i  8(0.4)  3.2V

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EXAMPLE
• Find vx in Fig. using source transformation

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 EXAMPLE

•Applying KVL around the loop in Fig (b) gives

 3  5i  v x  18  0
•Appling KVL to the loop containing only the 3V
voltage source, the resistor, and Vx yields
 3  1i  vx  0  vx  3  i

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 EXAMPLE
Substituting this into Eq. (1), we obtain
15  5i  3  0  i  4.5A
Alternatively
 vx  4i  vx  18  0  i  4.5A
thus
v x  3  i  7.5V

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THEVENIN’S THEOREM
• Thevenin's Theorem states that it is possible to
simplify any linear circuit, no matter how complex,
to an equivalent circuit with just a single voltage
source and series resistance connected to a load..
• Thevenin’s theorem implies that we can replace
arbitrarily complicated networks with simple
networks for purposes of analysis.

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THÉVENIN EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT

RTh
VTh

Thévenin Equivalent Circuit

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THÉVENIN EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT

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 THÉVENIN EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT
• Calculating the equivalent Thevenin source voltage and
series resistance is actually quite easy. First, the chosen load
resistor is removed from the original circuit, replaced with a
break (open circuit):

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 THÉVENIN EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT
• Next, the voltage between the two points where the load
resistor used to be attached is determined. 

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THÉVENIN EQUIVALENT
CIRCUIT
• To find the Thevenin series resistance for our
equivalent circuit, we need to take the original circuit
(with the load resistor still removed), remove the
power sources (in the same style as we did with the
Superposition Theorem: voltage sources replaced
with wires and current sources replaced with breaks),
and figure the resistance from one load terminal to
the other:

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THÉVENIN’S THEOREM – EXAMPLE 1
• Replace everything except the load resistor R with its
Thévenin equivalent

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EXAMPLE 1 – GET RTH

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 5k

“PART B”

6V

1k
VO  (6V )  1[V ]
1k  5k

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STEPS TO FOLLOW FOR
THEVENIN THEOREM
(1) Find the Thevenin source voltage by removing the load resistor
from the original circuit and calculating voltage across the open
connection points where the load resistor used to be.
(2) Find the Thevenin resistance by removing all power sources in
the original circuit (voltage sources shorted and current sources
open) and calculating total resistance between the open
connection points.
(3) Draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit, with the Thevenin voltage
source in series with the Thevenin resistance. The load resistor re-
attaches between the two open points of the equivalent circuit.
(4) Analyze voltage and current for the load resistor following the
rules for series circuits.

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NORTON THEOREM
• Norton's Theorem states that it is possible to
simplify any linear circuit, no matter how complex,
to an equivalent circuit with just a single current
source and parallel resistance connected to a load.

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STEPS TO FOLLOW FOR NORTON
THEOREM
• Identify and remove the load
• Short the load terminals and calculate IN (ISC)
• Remove all sources by replacing:
– voltage sources with a short
– current sources with an open
– If the source has an internal resistance, keep the resistance in the
circuit
• Look in the load terminals and calculate RN
• Create a parallel circuit consisting of IN, RN, and the load
• Calculate the load current or voltage as desired

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THEVENIN AND NORTON
EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

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THEVENIN AND NORTON EQUIVALENT
CIRCUITS

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THEVENIN AND NORTON EQUIVALENT
CIRCUITS

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THEVENIN AND NORTON EQUIVALENT
CIRCUITS

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THEVENIN AND NORTON EQUIVALENT
CIRCUITS

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THEVENIN AND NORTON EQUIVALENT
CIRCUITS

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THEVENIN AND NORTON EQUIVALENT
CIRCUITS

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THEVENIN AND NORTON EQUIVALENT
CIRCUITS

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THEVENIN AND NORTON EQUIVALENT
CIRCUITS

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NORTON'S EXAMPLE

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NORTON'S EXAMPLE (CONT.)

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 THEVENIN/NORTON ANALYSIS
1. Pick a good breaking point in the circuit (cannot
split a dependent source and its control variable).
2. Thevenin: Compute the open circuit voltage, VOC.
Norton: Compute the short circuit current, ISC.

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 THEVENIN/NORTON ANALYSIS
3. Compute the Thevenin equivalent resistance, RTh
(a) If there are only independent sources, then
short circuit all the voltage sources and open
circuit the current sources (just like
superposition).
(b) If there are only dependent sources, then
must use a test voltage or current source in order
to calculate
RTh = VTest/Itest
(c) If there are both independent and dependent 59
 THEVENIN/NORTON ANALYSIS
4. Thevenin: Replace circuit with VOC in series with
RTh
Norton: Replace circuit with ISC in parallel with
RTh
Note: for 3(b) the equivalent network is merely
RTh , that is, no voltage (or current) source.
Only steps 2 & 4 differ from Thevenin & Norton!

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 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
What load resistance RL will maximize the power
absorbed by the resistor?

• The maximum power transfer theorem states

that the maximum power delivered to a load by a
source is attained when the load resistance, RL, is
equal to the Thevenin resistance, Rth, of the source

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MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
DERIVATION
Goal: Find the value of RL that maximizes the
power absorbed by RL

This can only be true if RL = Req

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MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
SUMMARY

Finding the load resistance that maximizes power

transfer is usually a top-step process

1.Find the Thevenin or Norton equivalent

• Find the load resistance RL
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MAX. POWER TRANSFER
EXAMPLE

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SOLUTION

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MAX. POWER TRANSFER EXAMPLE
(CONT.)

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