Chapter 3

Vectors and
Two-Dimensional Motion
Vector vs. Scalar Review
 All physical quantities encountered
in this text will be either a scalar
or a vector
 A vector quantity has both
magnitude (size) and direction
 A scalar is completely specified by
only a magnitude (size)
Vector Notation

 When handwritten, use an arrow: A
 When printed, will
 be in bold print
with an arrow: A
 When dealing with just the
magnitude of a vector in print, an
italic letter will be used: A
Properties of Vectors
 Equality of Two Vectors
 Two vectors are equal if they have
the same magnitude and the same
direction
 Movement of vectors in a diagram
 Any vector can be moved parallel to
itself without being affected
More Properties of Vectors
 Negative Vectors
 Two vectors are negative if they
have the same magnitude but are
180° apart
  (opposite directions)
 
 
 A  B; A  A  0
 Resultant Vector
 The resultant vector is the sum of a
given
 set of vectors
 R  A B
Adding Vectors
 When adding vectors, their
directions must be taken into
account
 Units must be the same
 Geometric Methods
 Use scale drawings
 Algebraic Methods
 More convenient
Adding Vectors Geometrically
(Triangle or Polygon Method)
 Choose a scale
 Draw the first vector with the appropriate
length and in the direction specified, with
respect to a coordinate system
 Draw the next vector with the appropriate
length and in the direction specified, with
respect to a coordinate system whose
origin is the end of vector and parallel
to the coordinate system used for

A 
A
Graphically Adding
Vectors, cont.
 Continue drawing
the vectors “tip-to-
tail”
 The resultant is
drawn from the
origin of A to the end
of the last vector
 Measure the length
of  and its angle
 R
Use the scale factor to
convert length to
actual magnitude
Graphically Adding
Vectors, cont.
 When you have
many vectors, just
keep repeating the
process until all are
included
 The resultant is still
drawn from the
origin of the first
vector to the end of
the last vector
Notes about Vector
Addition
 Vectors obey the
Commutative
Law of Addition
 The order in which
the vectors are
added doesn’t
affect
 the result
 A B B A
Vector Subtraction
 Special case of
vector addition
 Add the negative
of the subtracted
vector
 
   
 A  B  A  B
 Continue with
standard vector
addition
procedure
Multiplying or Dividing a
Vector by a Scalar
 The result of the multiplication or
division is a vector
 The magnitude of the vector is multiplied
or divided by the scalar
 If the scalar is positive, the direction of
the result is the same as of the original
vector
 If the scalar is negative, the direction of
the result is opposite that of the original
vector
 Components of a Vector
 A component is
a part
 It is useful to use
rectangular
components
 These are the
projections of the
vector along the
x- and y-axes
Components of a Vector,
cont.
 The x-component of a vector is the
projection along the x-axis
Ax  A cos 
 The y-component of a vector is the
projection along the y-axis
Ay  A sin  
 Then, A  A x  A y
More About Components
of a Vector
 The previous equations are valid
only if θ is measured with
respect to the x-axis
 The components can be positive or
negative and will have the same
units as the original vector
More About Components,
cont.
 The components are the legs of the 
right triangle whose hypotenuse is A
 Ay 
A 2
A A
x
2
y and   tan 
1

 Ax 
 May still have to find θ with respect to the
positive x-axis
 The value will be correct only if the angle
lies in the first or fourth quadrant
 In the second or third quadrant, add 180°
Example 3.1
 A motorist undergoes a displacement of
250 km in a direction 30 North of East.
Resolve this displacement into
components in the directions north and
east.
Adding Vectors
Algebraically
 Choose a coordinate system and
sketch the vectors
 Find the x- and y-components of
all the vectors
 Add all the x-components
 This gives Rx:
Rx   vx
Adding Vectors
Algebraically, cont.
 Add all the y-components
 This gives Ry: R y   v y
 Use the Pythagorean Theorem to
find the magnitude of the
resultant: R  R x  R y
2 2

 Use the inverse tangent function to

find the direction of R:
1
Ry
  tan
Rx
Example
 A person going for a walk follows the path shown in Figure
below. The total trip consists of four straight-line paths. At the
end of the walk, what is the person’s resultant displacement
measured from the starting point?
 𝑅𝑥 = 100 − 150𝑐𝑜𝑠30° − 200𝑐𝑜𝑠60° = −129.90 𝑚

𝑅𝑦 = −300 − 150𝑠𝑖𝑛30° + 200𝑠𝑖𝑛60° = −201.79 𝑚

Then, the resultant displacement can be represented in the
Figure below:
 𝑅 = ඥ(−129.90)2 + (−201.79)2
= 239.99 𝑚

−1
−201.79
∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ൬ ൰= 57.23°
−129.90
𝜃 = 180° + 57.23° = 237.23°
The resultant displacement is 239.99 m
at an angle o f 237.23°.
Motion in Two Dimensions
 Using + or – signs is not always
sufficient to fully describe motion
in more than one dimension
 Vectors can be used to more fully
describe motion
 Still interested in displacement,
velocity, and acceleration
 Displacement in two
dimensions
 The position of an
object is described
by its position

vector,r
 The displacement
of the object is
defined as the
change in its
position
  
 r  rf  ri
Ways an Object Might
Accelerate
 The magnitude of the velocity (the
speed) can change
 The direction of the velocity can
change
 Even though the magnitude is
constant
 Both the magnitude and the
direction can change
Projectile Motion
 An object may move in both the x
and y directions simultaneously
 It moves in two dimensions
 A projectile is an object moving in
two dimensions under the
influence of Earth's gravity; its
path is a parabola.
Projectile Motion

The speed in the x-direction is

constant; in the y-direction the
object moves with constant
acceleration g.
This photograph shows two balls
that start to fall at the same time.
The one on the right has an initial
speed in the x-direction. It can be
seen that vertical positions of the
two balls are identical at identical
times, while the horizontal position
of the yellow ball increases linearly.
 Projectile Motion

If an object is launched at an initial angle of θ0 with

the horizontal, the analysis is similar except that the
initial velocity has a vertical component.
 Projectile Motion at
Various Initial Angles
 Complementary
values of the
initial angle result
in the same range
 The heights will be
different
 The maximum
range occurs at a
projection angle
of 45o
 Solving Problems Involving Projectile
Motion
Projectile motion is motion with constant
acceleration in two dimensions, where the
acceleration is g and is down.
Rules of Projectile Motion
 The x- and y-directions of motion are
completely independent of each other
 The x-direction is uniform motion
 ax = 0
 The y-direction is free fall
 ay = -g
 The initial velocity can be broken down
into its x- and y-components
 vOx  vO cos  O vOy  vO sin  O
Some Details About the
Rules
 x-direction
 ax = 0
 v x o  v o cos  o  v x  constant
 x = vxot
 This is the only operative equation in the
x-direction since there is uniform velocity
in that direction
More Details About the
Rules
 y-direction
y o  v o sin  o
 v

 free fall problem

 a = -g
 take the positive direction as upward
 uniformly accelerated motion, so the
motion equations all hold
Velocity of the Projectile
 The velocity of the projectile at
any point of its motion is the
vector sum of its x and y
components at that point
vy
2
v  v v
x
2
y and   tan 1

vx
 Remember to be careful about the
angle’s quadrant
Problem-Solving Strategy
 Select a coordinate system and
sketch the path of the projectile
 Include initial and final positions,
velocities, and accelerations
 Resolve the initial velocity into x-
and y-components
 Treat the horizontal and vertical
motions independently
Problem-Solving Strategy,
cont
 Follow the techniques for solving
problems with constant velocity to
analyze the horizontal motion of
the projectile
 Follow the techniques for solving
problems with constant
acceleration to analyze the vertical
motion of the projectile
Some Variations of
Projectile Motion
 An object may be
fired horizontally
 The initial velocity
is all in the x-
direction
 vo = vx and vy = 0
 All the general
rules of projectile
motion apply
 Non-Symmetrical
Projectile Motion
 Follow the general
rules for projectile
motion
 Break the y-direction
into parts
 up and down
 symmetrical back to
initial height and then
the rest of the height
Example 3.1
 A movie student driver on a motorcycle speeds horizontally off
a 50 m high cliff. How fast must the motorcycle leave the cliff-
top if it is to land on level ground below, 90.0 m from the
base of the cliff where the cameras are?
Example 3.2 continue…
Solution
Taking the downward motion to be negative, we have 𝑣0 =?, 𝑦 =
−50 𝑚, 𝑔 = 9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 , 𝑥 = 90 𝑚, and 𝑣0𝑦 = 0 since it speeds
horizontally,
1
𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜𝑦 𝑡 − 2𝑔𝑡 2
1
−50 = −2ሺ9.8ሻ𝑡 2

Solving for t, we get t=3.19 s.

To get the initial velocity, 𝑣0𝑥 , we apply:
𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜𝑥 𝑡
90 = 𝑣𝑜𝑥 (3.19)
We solve for𝑣0𝑥 , and get:
𝑣0𝑥 = 28.2 𝑚/𝑠
Example 3.2
 A football is kicked at an angle 30.0 o with velocity of 20.0 m/s.
Calculate the maximum height reached by the ball.
Solution
At maximum height 𝑣𝑦 = 0, and this o ccurs at time
𝑣𝑜𝑦 (sin 𝜃)
𝑡=
𝑔
20.0 sin 37.0°
𝑡= = 1.22 𝑠
9.8
We the find the maximum height:
1
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑣𝑜𝑦 𝑡 − 2𝑔𝑡 2

And taking the upward to be positive and the downw ard to be

negative, we have:
1 𝑚
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ሺ20 sin 37°ሻሺ1.22 𝑠ሻ− 2 ቀ9.8 2
ቁሺ1.22 𝑠ሻ2 = 7.39 𝑚
𝑠
Relative Velocity
 Relative velocity is about relating the
measurements of two different observers
 It may be useful to use a moving frame
of reference instead of a stationary one
 It is important to specify the frame of
reference, since the motion may be
different in different frames of reference
 There are no specific equations to learn
to solve relative velocity problems
Relative Velocity Notation
 The pattern of subscripts can be
useful in solving relative velocity
problems
 Assume the following notation:
 E is an observer, stationary with
respect to the earth
 A and B are two moving cars
Relative Position Equations

 r
AE is the position of car A as
measured by E

 rBE is the position of car B as
measured by E

 rAB is the position of car A as
measured by car B
  
 rAB  rAE  rEB
 Relative Position
 The position of
car A relative to
car B is given by
the vector
subtraction
equation
Relative Velocity Equations
 The rate of change of the
displacements gives the
relationship for the velocities
  
v AB  v AE  v EB
Problem-Solving Strategy:
Relative Velocity
 Label all the objects with a descriptive
letter
 Look for phrases such as “velocity of A
relative to B”
 Write the velocity variables with appropriate
notation
 If there is something not explicitly noted as
being relative to something else, it is
probably relative to the earth
Problem-Solving Strategy:
Relative Velocity, cont
 Take the velocities and put them
into an equation
 Keep the subscripts in an order
analogous to the standard equation
 Solve for the unknown(s)
Example 3.3
A bo at’s speed in still w ater is 𝑣𝐵𝑊 = 2.00 𝑚/𝑠. If the
bo at is to travel directly acro ss a river w ho se current
has speed o f 𝑣𝑊𝑆 = 1.50 𝑚/𝑠 , at w hat upstream angle
must the bo at head?

So lutio n
Letting 𝑣𝐵𝑆 be the velo city o f bo at as seen fro m the
sho re, the situatio n can be presented diagrammatically
as fo llo w s:
 𝑣𝑊𝑆 1.50 𝑚/𝑠
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = =
𝑣𝐵𝑊 2.00 𝑚/𝑠
1.50
𝜃 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 ൬ ൰
2.00
∴ 𝜃 = 48.59°
So the boat must head upstream at 48.59° angle
 The same boat in example 3.3, now heads directly
across the stream whose current is still 1.5 m/s.
a. What is the velocity of (magnitude and direction) of the
boat relative to the shore?
b. If the river is 110 m wide, how long will it take to cross
and how far downstream will the boat be then?
 a.
𝒗𝐵𝑆 = 𝒗𝐵𝑊 + 𝒗𝑊𝑆

𝑣𝐵𝑆 = ඥ𝑣 2 𝐵𝑊 + 𝑣 2 𝑊𝑆 = ඥ(2.00 𝑚/𝑠)2 + (1.50 𝑚/𝑠)2

𝑣𝐵𝑆 = 2.5 𝑚/𝑠
b. Given the river’s w idth 𝐷 = 110 𝑚, and using the definitio n of
velo city, we so lve for
𝐷
𝑡=
𝑣𝐵𝑊
110 𝑚
𝑡= = 55 𝑠
2.00 𝑚/𝑠
The bo at will have been carried dow nstream in this time a distance
o f:
𝑑 = 𝑣𝑊𝑆 𝑡 = (1.50 𝑚/𝑠)(55 𝑠) = 82.5 𝑚