Half term intervention

Paper 2 Triple Science

Papers 4, 5 & 6 combined science.
Chemistry from slide 99
Physics from slide 146
 Biology – Key points
• You will still need to go over key • Remember:
concepts in biology. • Describe questions:
• Enzymes • Generally practical questions but can also
be compare question.
• Cell types
• Write as a list; first this, then this…
• Specialised cells
• Explain questions:
• Osmosis
• Find the key word and write a definition
• Active transport about this.
In data•questions
Diffusion.make sure you use the • Try your best to think how your
names of the axes and/or the heading of definition can link to the question.
the table in your answer. • Look for all the data and images in the
Look for a change in the pattern of the question and use these to help you.
data - make sure you include this in your
answer.
 Photosynthesis is endothermic

Photosynthesis
•  Complex definition: (3)
• A process in green plants that produces complex organic chemicals
(glucose) from simple inorganic chemicals (carbon dioxide and water) using
light energy.
• Factors affecting the rate of Photosynthesis: (3)
• Temperature
• A low temperature will limit the rate as the molecules will move less and therefore
the reaction happens slower
•  Carbon dioxide
• A shortage of CO2 will limit the rate as fewer molecules will be available for the
reaction.
• Light intensity
• A shortage of light means there is less energy to power the reaction.

3
Photosynthesis 2
• Farmers artificially manipulate the environment in which they grow plants. (3)
• They grow plants in greenhouses or in polythene tunnels.
• They can control the temperature in greenhouses using…
• heaters and ventilation.
• They can artificially increase the carbon dioxide levels.
• They can control the light using…
• fluorescent lamps.
• By doing all of this, their plants grow faster and certain plants can be grown
in this country out of their natural growth season.  Eg tomatoes can be
grown all year round.
• Therefore, they increase their profits.

4
 rate of photosynthesis is directly proportional
to light intensity and inversely proportional to
Light Intensity the distance from a light source

• Aim:
• To investigate how light intensity affects the rate of photosynthesis
• Method:
1. Place 20 algal balls and the same volume of indicator solution in each tube, and replace the screw tops
2. Check the colour of the indicator against the colour of the chrt and record the starting pH
3. If using a hot lamp, place the water tank next to the lamp
4. Use the metre rule to place the uncovered tunes at specific distances from the lamp, on the opposite side
of the tank
5. Leave the tubes for 1-2 hours
• Results:
• Record distance and pH of each tube, calculate the rate of change in PH per hour for each tube and draw on a
graph.
• Conclusion
• As distance increases, light intensity falls and so the rate of photosynthesis decreases.
• Light Intensity = 1/d^2
• Algal Ball Practical

5
Stem Structure
Xylem 1
• Xylem vessels are involved in the movement 2 4
of water through a plant from its roots to its 3
leaves.
• Water:
• Is absorbed from the soil through root
hair cells
• Is transported through the xylem vessels
up the stem to the leaves 5
• Evaporates from the leaves 6
(transpiration)
Phloem
• Phloem vessels are involved in translocation. (2)
This is the movement of sucrose from the
stems to growing tissues and storage tissues

6
 living cells in phloem using energy to transport sucrose around
the plan
Phloem

Pores
1. Holes in Cell Wall

5
Companion cells
2. Central Channel keep sieve cells alive
Anatomy and help transport

6
7
7
 Xylem

3. Cells
lignified dead cells in
xylem transporting
water and minerals
through the plant 1. Cell Wall

2. Pores
5. Between Cells

8
Transpiration
• 4 Stages of Transpiration:
1. Causes water to enter the roots by osmosis
2. Draws water up the stem through the xylem from the roots
3. Draws water out of the leaf cells and xylem
4. Water vapour evaporates from leaves manly through the stomata
• 4 Key Factors that change the rate of transpiration:
1. Humidity – diffusion decreases if more humid as there is a lower
concentration gradient
2. Wind Speed – water vapour is removed quicker by air movement
3. Temperature – Evaporation and Diffusion are higher at higher temperatures
4. Light – stomata widens to allow more CO2 into the leaf for photosynthesis

9
Stomata

10
Translocation
• Definition:
• Translocation is the transport of sucrose around a plant
• Where is sucrose produced?
• In leaves from glucose formed during photosynthesis
• Where is sucrose used?
• Needed for growth in growing regions e.g. bud
• Storage organs (e.g. potato)

11
 Plant Structure
2
1
3
Reduces Water Loss Provides Protection
Contains chlorophyll which
photosynthesises.

4 Photosynthesis
Mesophylloccurs here
(6)
- Three for names 5 Transport Water
- Three for Uses and Carbs

Allows
6
Mesophyll interchange of
gases

Regulates Gas Exchange

10 9 8 7 12
Features of a Leaf I

Adaption Purpose
Large surface area To absorb more light 1
Thin Short distance for carbon dioxide to diffuse into
leaf cells 2
Chlorophyll Absorbs sunlight to transfer energy into chemicals (3)
0 To support the leaf and transport
3 water and
Network of veins
carbohydrates
Stomata 4
Allow carbon dioxide to diffuse into the leaf
5

13
Features of a Leaf II

Adaption Purpose
Epidermis is thin and transparent To allow more light to reach
1 the palisade cells
Thin cuticle made of wax To protect the leaf without blocking out light
Palisade cell layer at top of leaf To absorb more light 2
3
Air spaces allow carbon dioxide to diffuse through (3)
Spongy layer 0
the leaf, and increase the surface area
Palisade cells contain many chloroplasts To absorb all the available4light
5

14
Measuring the rate of transpiration
• Instrument used?
• Potometer
1. Note the position of the air bubble on the ruler at the start of the
investigation
2. Note the position of the bubble on the ruler after a known number
of minutes
3. Divide the distance ,oved by the bubble by the time taken
• Rate of transpiration can be measured as…
• Distance moved/time taken

15
Single science content for topic 6 only.
Plant Adaptations
• Adaptations to dry conditions:
• Waxy cuticle to reduce water loss
• Rolled leaf to reduce air movement around stomata
• Leaf hairs to trap moist air around stomata
• Adaptations to tropical conditions:
• Large leaves to take in as much light as possible
• Stem and leaves that climb up the trees to obtain more light
• Leaves with ‘dry tips’ so water runs off them
• Adaptation to waterlogged soil
• Spongy tissue in their roots that stores oxygen
• Fine surface roots that take in oxygen at the water surface

17
Tropism

10

(4)
18
Plant Hormones
• Plant hormone that makes cells grow longer…
• Auxins
• Auxins are affected by…
• Light

19
Uses of Plant Hormones
• Name 3:
• Selective Weedkiller
• Weed plants compete with crop plants for water and minerals from the soil
• Weeds absorb more of the auxins then the crop plants. This causes them to grow too quickly and die
• The crop plant now has no competition and so gets more water and minerals
• Rooting Powder
• Gardeners take cuttings of plants to grow into new plants
• They dip the stalk end of the cutting in rooting powder – this contains auxins that cause the stalk to
produce roots quickly
• Gibberellins
• Stimulate germination of seeds which increases crop yield.
• They also stimulate flower and fruit production.
• It stimulates stem elongation and so increases yield for crops like sugar cane
• It also stops seed development and increases the size of fruit
• Ethene
• Some hormones slow the ripening of fruits and others speed it up. These hormones and their inhibitors are
useful for delaying ripening during transport or when fruit is displayed in shops. 20
Hormones 9 1 17

10
2

8
21
Hormone Positions

22
How Hormones Work
• Hormones are produced by…
• Endocrine Glands
• They travel around the body in the blood stream until they reach
the…
• Target organ
• They cause their target organ to respond
• Difference between nerves and hormones (longevity)
• Nerves impulses work quickly and have a short-term effect
• Hormones have a long-lived effect but take longer to work

23
Adrenaline and Thyroxine
• Negative Feedback
• Adrenaline
• Adrenaline is a hormone that is relase form the adrenal glands in response to sudden
stress. – ‘fight or flight’
• Thyroxine
• Thyroxine is a hormone that controls metabolic rate
• This is the rate at ehich the cells respire
• Effects of adrenaline
• Adrenaline has many target organs including the liver, the heart and blood vessels. It:
• Increases heart rate
• Constricts some blood vessels to make blood pressure higher
• Dilates other blood vessels to increase blood low to muscles
• Causes the liver to convert glycogen to glucose, which is released into the blood – this raises
blood sugar levels

24
Thyroxine
• thyroxine controls metabolic rate
• low levels of thyroxine stimulates production of TRH in hypothalamus
• Thyroxine is produced from the thyroid gland, which stimulates the
basal metabolic rate.
• It controls the speed at which oxygen and food products react to
release energy for the body to use.
• Thyroxine plays an important role in growth and development.
• Thyroxine levels are controlled by negative feedback.
Thyroxine
• Low thyroxine levels in the bloodstream stimulate the hypothalamus
to release TRH (thyroid releasing hormone)
• and this causes the pituitary to release TSH (thyroid stimulating
hormone)
• so the thyroid releases more thyroxine.
• So blood levels return to normal.
• Normal thyroxine levels in the bloodstream inhibit TRH release from
the hypothalamus and this inhibits the release of TSH from the
pituitary, so normal blood levels are maintained.
 1
3

4
(5) 10
5
11

6
9
7

27
Female Hormones 1 2

5 6

(3)

28
Contraception
• Definition:
• Contraception is the prevention of fertilisation
• Hormonal contraception includes hormone pills, implants or
injections and works by…
• releasing hormones to prevent ovulation and
• thicken mucus at the cervix, preventing sperm from passing

Lesser fertilisation rate than

barrier contraceptives

29
Assisted Reproduction Therapy
• Fertility Drugs
• Fertility drugs cause an increase in the hormones FSH and LH.
• The drugs can help women who produce too little FSH by stimulating eggs to mature
and the be released.
• IVF (in-vitro fertilisation)
• IVF is fertilisation outside a woman’s body.
• This treatment is offered to couples who are having difficulties conceiving
• How it works:
1. Fertility drug given to woman to stimulate eggs to mature (FSH and LH)
2. Eggs are taken from the ovaries
3. The eggs are mixed with sperm in a dish for fertilisation
4. The fertilised eggs develop into embryos
5. When the embryos are tiny balls of cells, one or two of them are placed in the
mother's womb to develop

30
Clomifene
• Some women have difficulty becoming pregnant because they do not
ovulate (release eggs).
• Clomifene is a drug used as a fertility drug to stimulate ovulation, the
release of eggs.
• It works by blocking the action of oestrogen's negative feedback on
LH.
• Therefore more LH is released in a surge. This mimics the LH surge
which occurs just before ovulation.
• Explain the importance of maintaining a constant internal
environment in response to internal and external change
• Enzymes and most of the bodies functions work best at 37C, changing
this by too much can lead to shut-down of organs or other stuff
Homeostasis
• Definition:
• Maintaining conditions inside the body at a constant level in response to
internal and external change
• Negative Feedback mechanisms respond to a change in a condition to help
bring the condition back to the normal level

33
Osmoregulation
• Osmoregulation controls how much water is lost in urine, and so
controls the amount of water in the body. This stopes animal cells
from swelling up or shrinking by osmosis

34
Osmoregulation - ADH
• The concentration of our urine is controlled by a hormone called ADH.
• ADH is produced by the pituitary gland that is situated just below the brain. The
pituitary gland monitors the concentration of the blood plasma. It releases ADH
into the bloodstream, which travels in the blood to the kidneys.
• The more concentrated the plasma, the more ADH is released into the blood.
When the ADH reaches the kidneys, it causes them to reabsorb more water. This
keeps more water in the body and produces more concentrated urine.
• When the plasma is more dilute, less ADH is released into the bloodstream. This
allows more water to leave the kidneys, producing more dilute urine.
• This method of control is an example of negative feedback.
• Alcohol suppresses ADH production. This causes the kidneys to produce more
dilute urine. It can lead to dehydration.
• Ecstasy increases ADH production. This causes the kidneys to reabsorb water. It
can result in the body having too much water.
35
Thermoregulation
• Body temperature needed to be maintained…
• 37C
• What controls thermoregulation?
• Hypothalamus

detection 2. Name three changes Result

detection 5. Name three changes Result

36
Thermoregulation
1
2

3
7

6 4

37
Controlling Body Temperature
• Name the two types of ways the capillaries control body temperature
• Vasoconstriction
• More blood flows through deep skin blood vessels so less blood flows through
surface capillaries. Therefore less heat is lost
• Vasodilation
• Less blood flows through deep skin blood vessels and more through surface
capillaries. This increases heat loss by radiation

38
Energy Hormones Key Points
• High Glucose =
• Hyperglycaemia
• Low Glucose =
• Hypoglycaemia (2)
• Glucose is stored as
• glycogen
• in liver
• Only INSULIN can lower blood glucose levels
• Insulin made in
• pancreas (2)

39
How Insulin Works

1 4

3 (2)

40
How Humans Can Have Insulin
Natural insulin can be taken from the pancreases
of pigs or cattle, but this insulin does not suit
• Pigs Pancreas some people and is limited in supply.
• Upsets Religions and Vegans Nowadays most insulin is synthesised using
genetically modified (GM) bacteria. The gene for
• Pig could be unwell insulin secretion is cut from a length of human
DNA, and inserted into the DNA of a bacterium.
• Bacteria given insulin The bacterium is then cultivated and soon there
• Religious Aspect are millions of bacteria producing human insulin.
(2)

41
Blood Glucose Regulation
• Blood glucose regulation is another example of homeostasis
• Pancreatic Control

As the glucose
concentration
falls/rises, the
production of
response
hormones
decreases

42
Diabetes
• Type 1 Diabetes:
• Cause:
• The immune system has damaged this person’s insulin-secreting pancreatic cells so the
person does not produce insulin
• Control:
• They have to inject insulin into the fat just below the skin
• They have to work out the right amount of insulin to inject so that the blood glucose
concentration is kept within safe limits
• Type 2 Diabetes:
• Causes:
• The person does produce insulin but their liver and muscle cells have become resistant to it
• Control:
• Most people can control their blood glucose concentration by eating foods that contain less
sugar, exercising and using medication if needed

43
Blood Glucose Raised By (3 Points)…
1. Diet
2. Glucagon Hormone
3. Respiration (brain uses 1/3 daily)

(3)

44
Triple science only content
 1 2
3
3

4 4
5 5
6 6

(5)
7 7

8
9
10

11

46
Talk About the Kidney’s Job
• As the blood passes through the kidneys, all the small molecules are filtered out of the
blood.
• This includes molecules of (4):
• Water
• salt
• glucose
• urea (a waste product from the breakdown of proteins)
• The kidneys then reabsorb all of the glucose and as much water and salt as the body
needs, putting them back into the blood. This leaves some water and salt, and all of the
urea, which is now called urine. The urine passes from the kidneys to the bladder, where
it is stored prior to being excreted from the body.
• The kidneys do more than just control the body’s water balance. They also control:
• The level of salts in the blood.
• The excretion of urea and other metabolic waste.
(4)

47
 2
1
17
7

9 14
3

10
15

4 11
6 16
12

13
5

48
ADH Recap

ADH increases the permeability of the cell membranes in the collecting duct of the
nephron so that more water is reabsorbed from the urine by osmosis

49
Kidney Dialysis
• Must be carried out every:
• 2 or 3 days
• Key stages of Dialysis:

50
Kidney Treatment
• Kidney failure is when the kidney stops working properly As a result three things build
up in the body:
• Water
• Mineral ions
• Urea
• Kidney Transplant
• A healthy kidney is connected to the blood circulation to do the work of the diseased
kidney
• Problem: The antigen on the transplanted kidney cells are different from antigens on
cells in the patient’s body. This could cause rejectio
• To prevent rejection:
• The antigens on the transplanted kidney and patient’s tissues must be as similar as possible
• The patient must be treated for life with drugs to reduce the effects of the immune system.
• This may mean the patient is more infection than normal

51
Urea
• urea is produced from the breakdown of excess amino acids in the
liver
Exchanging Materials – No additional single
science content in this topic.

2
3
4
1. Name Six
5
6

53
Key Equation for this Topic

rati o
u m e
:  vol
re a  
r fa c ea
• su
Vessels 1

• Arteries
• arteries take blood away from the heart to the body organs and tissues.
• The artery wall is thick and muscular so it can withstand the high pressure of the
blood being pumped directly from the heart
• Capillaries
• capillaries are singe-cell thick, thin-walled vessels which form a network
• Substances are exchanged between the body cells and blood in capilaries
• Capillaries are adapted for their function of exchanging substances
• Veins
• collect blood from the capillaries in the body and return the blood to the heart. The
wall of the veins are thin, the blood is at a much lower pressure. To prevent the
backflow of this lower pressure blood the veins contain valves
(3)
55
Blood
• Blood is made of four main parts (name the parts with percent and use):
• Plasma
• 55% of blood
• Liquid Part of blood
• Carries the blood cels through the blood vessels
• It contains many dissolved substances such as:
• Xarbon and glucose
• It is yellow
• Red Blood Cells:
• 45%
• Contain haemoglobin which carries oxygen
• The biconcave shape increases surface area

56
Blood
• White Blood Cells
• <1%
• Larger than red blood cells
• Have a nucleus
• All types of white blood cells are part of the immune system
• They attack pathogens in the body
• Platelets
• Platelets are fragments of larger cells
• They have no nucleus
• Their function is to cause blood to clot when a blood vessel has been damaged
• The clot blocks the wound and prevents pathogens getting into the blood

57
Blood
• What makes up 55% of blood:
• Plasma
• What is in Plasma?
• Plasma transports dissolved substances around the body, including:
• Hormones
• Antibodies
• Nutrients
• Waste substances, such as carbon dioxide and urea
• Platelets use?
• Clotting
• Stops bleeding
58
 Red Blood Cell Adaptations
Red Blood Cell Official Name?
Erythrocytes

Feature Reason
Small size Lets red blood cells pass through narrow capillaries
Flattened disc shape Provides a large surface area, allowing rapid diffusion
of oxygen
Contains haemoglobin Haemoglobin absorbs oxygen in the lungs and releases
oxygen in the rest of the body
Does not contain a nucleus Increases amount of space inside the cell for
haemoglobin
White Blood Cells
• Phagocytes can alter their shape to engulf pathogens
• Lymphocytes can produce proteins called antibodies
 1. Carries oxygenated blood from heart to body

Heart Diagram
2. Brings deoxygenated blood from body to heart
4. Prevents the backflow of blood
Name Part and function: 6. Carries deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs
8. Brings oxygenated blood from lungs to heart

10. Thicker muscle wall then

1 6 right ventricle and atria as it
pushes blood all round the
2 body
7

3 8

4 9

5 10 (3)

61
Exchanging Materials
• More complex organisms…
• As they get bigger their surface area to volume ratio gets smaller
• This means they cannot rely on diffusion
• They need to have specialised exchange surfaces and transport systems
• Adaption for exchange:
• Special organs are adapted to make exchange efficient
• For example, the lungs are adapted to exchanged gases, and the small
intestine is adapted to exchange solutes

62
Breathing Systems

1
2

4
5

7
(2)
8
63
Ventilations

(2)

64
Single Vs Double Circulatory System
• Double circulatory systems are important because they ensure that
we are giving our tissues and muscles blood full of oxygen, instead of
a mixture of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. While it may take a
bit more energy than a single circulatory system, this system is much
more efficient!
(2)

65
 • Millions of tiny alveoli (air sacs)
Alveoli create a large surface area for
diffusion for gases
• Each alveolus is closely
associated with a capillary. Their
walls are one cell thick,
minimising diffusion distance
• Ventilation of alveolus
(breathing) and continual blood
flow through capillaries
maintains high concentration
gradients, to maximise rate of
diffusion 66
Rate of Diffusion
• The rate of diffusion across an exchange surface is affected by the
structure of the surface
• Factors affecting the rate of diffusion in humans:
• Increase in surface area
• E.g. alveoli in lungs
• A shorter distance for diffusion
• E.g. surfaces are one cell thick
• Maintenance of a high concentration gradient
• E.g. animals have an efficient blood supply, lungs are ventilated

67
Fick's Law

Proportional to…
Cellular Respiration
• an exothermic reaction
• which occurs continuously in living cells
• to release energy for metabolic processes
• (including aerobic and anaerobic respiration)
Aerobic Respiration
• Aerobic Respiration Equation:
• Glucose + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water
• Uses of aerobic respiration
• In animals:
• For metabolic processes to build larger molecules from smaller ones
• e.g. proteins from amino acids; large carbohydrates (e.g. starch and glycogen) from small
sugars (e.g. glucose); fats from fatty acids and glycerol
• To enable muscle contraction
• To maintain steady body temperature (warm blooded creatures)
• In Plants:
• To build larger molecules from smaller ones
• e.g. sugars, nitrates and other nutrients into amino acids

70
Anaerobic Respiration In Plant Cells:
Glucose  CO2 + Ethanol

• Equation:
• Glucose  Lactic Acid + Energy (less)
• How anaerobic respiration works:
• Anaerobic respiration is the incomplete breakdown of glucose to release energy.
These means 4 things:
1. Much less energy released per molecule of glucose than during aerobic respiration
2. Does not use oxygen so can supply enrgy to muscles when there isn’t enough
oxygen for aerobic respiration
3. In muscle cells, produces lactic acid. This is removed be blood flowing through the
muscles
4. Extra oxygen is required to oxidise lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water after
exercise

71
Anaerobic Respiration – Advantages and
Disadvantages
• Advantages:
• Anaerobic respiration is useful for muscles cells because it can release energy
to allow muscles to contract when the heart and lungs cannot deliever oxygen
and glucose fast enough for aerobic respiration
• Respiration can continue in organisms that have no, or very limited oxygen
supply.
• Disadvantages:
• Anaerobic respiration releases much less energy from each molecule of
glucose than aerobic respiration
• Lactic acid is not removed the bod. It build up in the muscles and blood and
must be broken down after exercise

72
Measuring Carbon Dioxide / Oxygen
• Sodium hydroxide (soda lime) absorbs all CO2
(Oxygen) from the air in the apparatus from the
beginning. Potassium hydroxide could be used
instead of sodium hydroxide. They both absorb
CO2.
• As the germinating seeds (snail) use oxygen
(CO2) and the pressure reduces in tube A so the
manometer level nearest to the seeds rises.
• Any CO2 (Oxygen) excreted is absorbed by the
sodium hydroxide (soda lime) solution.
• The syringe is used to return the manometer
fluid levels to normal.
• The volume of oxygen (CO2) used is calculated by
measuring the volume of gas needed from the
syringe to return the levels to the original values. (3)
73
 stroke volume (SV) is the volume of blood pumped from
the left ventricle per beat.
Changes in heart rate
• Cardiac output=
• Stroke volume X heart rate
• Effects of exercise
• When you exercise, your heart rate increases. The harder you exercise the
more your heart rate increases.
• Heart rate can be measured by taking your pulse at the wrist.
• It is usually measured as number of beats per minute
• Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration (4):

74
• cardiac output = stroke volume × heart rate
Abiotic and Biotic Factors

• Abiotic Factors: Definition + Examples

• Non-living factors that affect an eco-system
• Rainfall; Temperature; Substances in soil; oxygen levels in water; pollution
• Biotic Factors: Definition + Examples
• Living Factors that affect eco-systems
• Non-indigenous species; deterring predators – e.g. colourful poisonous frogs
to deter predators; big thorns or poisonous plants; colourful butterflies;
competition between plants

76
Interdependence
• Animals are reliant on each other for resources
Parasitism and Mutualism Example 1 Example 2 Example 3

4 5 6 7 8 9
• Parasitism
• One organism feeds of another organism
• Mutualistic
• Organism that live together and both benefit from the relationship
• Parasitism Examples:

1 2 3

• Mutualistic Examples: 78
Fieldwork Examples
• Sample with Quadrats
• Quadrats are placed randomly in the area
• The number of study organisms is counted in each quadrats
• He number of organisms in the whole area is estimated using the equation:
• Number in whole area =
• Mean number of organisms in one quadrate X (total area (m^2) _
area of one quadrate (m^2)
• Belt transects
• The effect of abiotic and biotic factors on where organisms live (their
distribution) can be studied quadrats placed along a belt transect:

79
Organisms and their environment
• Aim:
• To investigate how the change in light intensity from inside a woodland to a nearby
open meadow affects where cowslips grow
• Method:
1. Set out a measuring tape from inside the woodland out to the open meadow
2. Take a quadrats sample at regular intervals
3. At each quadrat sample, count the number of cowslips, and measure the light
intensity
4. Compare the number of plants with the light intensity along the transect to see
how light affects where the plant lives
• Conclusions:
• Cowslips seem to grow better in open meadow because the greater the light
intensity the greater the number of cowslips

80
Food ChainsPyramid of Numbers Pyramid of Biomass

(2)
• Food chain = (1)
• a diagram to represent feeding relationships between organisms, showing
direction of energy flow.                                          
• Food web = (1)
• a diagram that represents all of the feeding relationships between organisms
in an ecosystem.

81
Energy Loss
• In a food chain only around 10 per cent of the energy is passed on to
the next trophic level.
• The rest of the energy passes out of the food chain in a number of
ways:
• it is used as heat energy
• it is used for life processes (eg movement)
• faeces and remains are passed to decomposers
• Less energy is transferred at each level of the food chain so the
biomass gets smaller. As a result, there are usually fewer than five
trophic levels in food chains.
Exchange Efficiency
• A efficiency = 500/5000
• = 10%
Eutrophication
1. Nutrients Load Up: excessive nutrients from fertilisers flow into
rivers (Phosphorus and Nitrogen)
2. Plants Flourish
3. Algae Blooms which blocks the sunlight, depleting oxygen and
killing plants
4. Decomposition further depletes oxygen
5. Fish and other organisms die – whole ecosystem dies (3)

84
The Environment
• Introducing Species
• For:
• Some non-indigenous species are added to control other species
• Against:
• Can harm indigenous species (2)
• They may reproduce rapidly as they have no natural predators in the new area
• They may outcompete native species for food or other resources
• Food Security Definition: (1)
• Having access to enough safe and healthy food at all times
• Biofuels – For and Against: (2)
• Grow biofuels to replace fossil fuels. It is carbon neutral. Raises sustainability issues
about whether land is for crops or fuel.
(1)
• Climate Change Problems for Plants:
• Causes pathogens to move to new areas
• Ways to Obtain Fresh Water: (3)
• Distillation – cheaper but slow. Evaporated then condensed.
• Desalination – More expensive, larger scale. Getting sea and ocean water clean
85
 EA
Assessing Pollution O
A
•bushy lichens need really clean air
•leafy lichens can survive a small amount of air OI
• Air Pollution pollution AE
•crusty lichens can survive in more polluted air.
• Lichen OI
• Lecanora Conizaeoides grows well with high sulfur dioxide concentration (2) E
• Black Spot Fungus
• Doesn’t grow in high sulfur dioxide concentration – only seen on roses in non-polluted
areas (2)
• Water Pollution

(2)

86
Human effects on ecosystem
• Fish Farming
• Fish farming involves growing one kind of fish in an area.
• The fish are fed and the waste they produce is removed from their tanks
The waste can pollute the local aream changing conditions so that some local species die
out
Disease from the farmed fish (such as lice) can spread to wild fish and kill them
Farming fish reduces fishing of wild fish

87
Biodiversity
• Reasons for maintaining biodiversity:
• Moral reasons:
• Humans should respect other living organisms
• Ecosystem Structure:
• Some organisms have an important role in ecosystems, such as microorganisms in decay
processes and nutrient recycling.
• If this planet looses species, food chains become more unstable
• Usefulness
• Some species are particularly useful to humans, for example plants that produce life-
saving drugs, or wild varieties of plant grown on crops

88
Reforestation
• Reforestation is replanting forests where they have been destroyed.
• Advantages:
• Restores habitat for species that are endangered.
• Reduces the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air as the trees
photosynthesise
• Tree roots bind the soil together and reduce the effects of soil erosion
• Affects local climate, for example reducing the range of temperature variation

89
Food Security Factors
• Food Security Definition:
• Having access to enough safe and healthy foo at all times
• Factors:
• Rapid Population Growth
• Increase in meat and fish demand as countries become wealthier
• More land is needed for meat than other sources of food such as soy beans
• Fish farming deduces this factor
• Demand for growth means more fertilisers are used to increase yield
• Fertilisers output CO2 when being made – sustainability (possible to continue
without causing harm)
• Increase climate change leads to pests and pathogens moving into new areas
• Biofuels – but what about the COWWWS?
Carbon Cycle

4
1

(3)
2

91
Nitrogen Cycle

1
2
10
(5)
14 3
11

9
4

13 12
5

8 7 6
92
 Water Cycle
4 5
3

7
2
8

10

(3)

9
1

93
Triple science content
Food ChainsPyramid of Numbers Pyramid of Biomass

(2)
• Food chain = (1)
• a diagram to represent feeding relationships between organisms, showing
direction of energy flow.                                          
• Food web = (1)
• a diagram that represents all of the feeding relationships between organisms
in an ecosystem.

95
Energy Loss
• In a food chain only around 10 per cent of the energy is passed on to
the next trophic level.
• The rest of the energy passes out of the food chain in a number of
ways:
• it is used as heat energy
• it is used for life processes (eg movement)
• faeces and remains are passed to decomposers
• Less energy is transferred at each level of the food chain so the
biomass gets smaller. As a result, there are usually fewer than five
trophic levels in food chains.
Exchange Efficiency
• A efficiency = 500/5000
• = 10%
Decay
• Controls of Decay
• The rate of decomposition is affected by:
• Warm temperatures because this increases enzyme activity in microorganisms
• Water content because microorganisms need water for many cell processes to work
• Oxygen availability because many microorganisms need oxygen for respiration
• Preventing Decay:
• Refrigeration
• Makes food last longer as the temperature is too cold for most microorganisms to grow
quickly
• Salting
• Makes food last longer as it causes water to move out of bacterial cells by osmosis, so there is
not enough water in the microorganism cells for them to grow
• Packing food in Nitrogen
• Makes food last longer as it means there is no oxygen for microorganisms to respire

98
Alkali Metals
• Density
• Less dense than water so float
• Alkali Metal Properties:
• Very Reactive (stored under oil); Soft; Relatively Low Melting Points
• Group 1 + Water  (1)
• Group 1 Hydroxide + Hydrogen
• Reactions with Water: (1)
• Lithium
• When lithium is added to water, lithium floats. It fizzes steadily and becomes smaller, until it
eventually disappears. (1)
• Sodium
• When sodium is added to water, the sodium melts to form a ball that moves around on the
surface. It fizzes rapidly, and the hydrogen produced may burn with an orange flame before
the sodium disappears (1)
• Potassium
• When potassium is added to water, the metal melts and floats. It moves around very quickly
on the surface of the water. The hydrogen ignites instantly. The metal is also set on fire, with
sparks and a lilac flame. There is sometimes a small explosion at the end of the reaction.
(1) 99
Halogens
• Where are halogens more soluble???
• Halogens are much more soluble in Cyclohexane than in water and
give coloured solutions. (1)
• These coloured solutions make it much easier to see which halogens
have been displaced.
• Bromine with Cyclohexane –
• Bright Orange (1)

• Iodine with Cyclohexane –

• Violet (1)

100
 Halogens
Most Reactive Lowest pH Lowest Boiling Point
GAS
• Going down:
• The outer shells
GAS (2) gets further
away from the
nucleus Intermolecular
• The force of forces between
attraction molecules become
LIQUID between the stronger and so
nucleus and more heat energy is
outer shell gets needed to
weaker overcome these
SOLID • Electrons are forces
gained less easily
• The element
becomes less
SOLID reactive

Least Reactive Highest pH Highest Boiling Point

101
Halogen Displacement
Halide Ions (aq) Chlorine Bromine Iodine
  Immediately Turns Dark Immediately Turns Dark
Potassium Red Red
Chloride No Reaction No Reaction
Instantly turns yellow   Immediately Turns Dark
Potassium Leaves KCl + Br Red
Bromide Write Out - Table
No Reaction
Orange Colour Red/Brown  
Potassium Leaves KCl + Iodine Leaves KBr + Iodine
Iodide
(4)

Dissolve in water
102
Halogens with metals
• Halogens react with metals to produce compounds called halides
• E.g. sodium + chlorine  sodium chloride

103
The Noble Gases
• Noble gases are unreactive due to…
• Their full outer shell (1)

• Uses
• Helium –
• balloons due to lower density than air
• Neon –
• Lights – glow when electricity flows through it
• Argon –
• Light bulbs - filaments would burn if the bulb was filled with air. It is used due to argon
being very unreactive
• Krypton –
• Lasers (2)
104
Types of Formulae
• Molecular Formula
• Actual number of atoms in a substance
• Empirical Formula
• Simplest whole number ratio

105
Rate of Reaction
• For a reaction to happen (2):
• Reactant particles must collide with each other and
• The collision must have enough energy (activation energy)
• Rate and time
• The greater the rate of reaction, the lower the reaction time
• A fast reaction haooens in a short time, such as combustion
• Factors of the rate of reaction(4):
• Concentration and Pressure
• More particles in the same volume and so the frequency of successful collisions increases
• Surface Area: Volume ratio
• When the SA:V ration of a solid reactant increases, more particles of the reactant are available
and so the frequency of successful collisions increases
• Temperature
• The particles have more energy so are faster, the frequency of collisions increases and the
energy of collisions incresses, so a greater proportion of collision are successful 106
 How to measure gas and Energy
• Catalyst –
• A catalyst is a substance that can increase the rate of a reaction (1)

• Reaction in terms of particles –

• Particles Collide
• Collison makes Activation Energy
• When this level of energy is hit, the particles can react (2)

107
 Reactions
• How to measure gas –
• The burette or measuring cylinder is filled with water before being turned
upside down over a trough of water. As the gas bubbles in, it pushes the
water out. The water level is then read off the scale on the burette or (2)
measuring cylinder.
• Fast and Slow Reactions:
• Fast – Fireworks
• Slow – Rusting (1)
• Rate of reaction Units –
• cm3/s or cm3/min or g/s or g/min (1)
• Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction –
• Temperature
• Concentration
• Surface Area (2)
• Catalyst 108
Investigating Rates
• Aims:
• To investigate the effect on the rate of reaction with hydrochloric acid of changing the surface
area of calcium carbonate
• Method:
1. Prepare three sets of marble chips on folder paper, one for each size of chip
2. Add measure volume of dilute acid to the conical flask. Plug the flask with cotton wool
3. Place the flask and a set of marble chips on the balance. Record the reading
4. Remove the cotton wool. Add the chips to the acid. Start the stop clock, and replace the
cotton wool and folded paper.
5. Record the mass of each 30s for a few minutes
6. REPEAT wit the other sets of chips
• Analysis
• Mean rate of reaction = change in mass/ chosen time
• Results

109
Heat Energy Changes
• Temperature Changes
• Exothermic Reactions
• Heat energy is given out and the reaction mixture or the surrounding increases in
temperature
• Endothermic Reactions
• Heat energy is taken in and the reaction mixture or the surroundings decrease in
temperature
• Bonds and Energy
• When a chemical reaction happens, the bonds that hold the atom together in
the molecules of the reactants are broken. The atoms then come together in
new arrangements to form the producs
• Breaking bonds is endothermic (energy is needed)
• Making bonds is exothermic (energy is released)

110
Heat Energy Changes

• Exothermic Examples (3):

• Combustion (burning)
• Many oxidation reactions, for example rusting
• Neutralisation reactions between acids and alkalis
• Endothermic Reactions (2):
• Decomposition
• Electrolysis 111
Reaction Profiles

112
Calculating Energy Change
• A bond energy is the energy needed to break 1 mol of a particular
covalent bond
• Bond Energy is in kJ/mol

113
Crude Oil
• Hydrocarbons
• Compounds of hydrogen and carbon only
• Hydrocarbons in crude oil
• Crude oil is:
• A complex mixture of hydrocarbons with their carbon atoms in chains or rings
• An important source of useful substances
• A finite resources

114
Fractional Distillation

115
 Fractional 13 14
Distillation 4 Key Points

Really 11 12
Fat
Donkeys
Kick 9
Nine 10
Grand
Red Gorrillas 7 8

5
6

3
4 (8)
• Three for names
1 4 Key Points • Three for uses
2 • Two for 4 Key Points
116
A Homologous Series
• 4 Criteria:
• Similar chemical properties
• A trend in physical properties
• Same general formula (CnH2n+2)
• Same functional group (2)

117
Alkanes and Alkenes
• Alkane –
• Single Bond
• General Formula:
• CnH2n+2
• Alkene – (2)
• Double Bond
• General Formula: (1)
• CnH2n
• Distinguishing between alkenes and alkanes
• Bromine water – if alkene turns colourless
• Balancing Equations:
• Oxygen can have ½ number

118
Complete and Incomplete Combustion
• Complete -
• X + Oxygen -> Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy
• Incomplete -
• X + Oxygen -> Carbon Monoxide + Water + Carbon (2)

119
Environmental Damage
• Incomplete Combustion Problems
• 3 Outputs of Incomplete Combustion and Fossil Fuels
• Carbon Monoxide, Dioxide and Sulfur Dioxide
• Carbon Monoxide released into the atmosphere – poisonous and also
contributes to global warming
• Carbon Dioxide contributes to global warming as it traps in light and infra red
rays, causing an increase in heat energy
• Burning the impurity sulfur releases sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere
which can be absorbed by clouds and turn into acid rain – lowering the pH of
lakes and thus killing fish (3)
• Fossil Fuels problems –
• finite
• Biofuels –
• infinite and carbon neutral (2)
120
Choosing Fuels
• Fossil Fuels
• These fossil fuels are obtained from crude oil:
• Petrol
• Diesel oil
• Fuel oil
• This fossil fuel is obtained from natural gas:
• Methane
• Hydrogen vs Petrol
• Pro Hydrogen (3):
• Both burn easily
• Hydrogen only produces water as a product whereas Petrol produces carbon mon- and dioxide
• Hydrogen releases nearly three times as much energy per kg as petrol
• Pro Petrol (4):
• Petrol is a liquid so is easy to store and transport
• Hydrogen is a gas so it has to be stored at high pressure
• Filling stations would need to be adapted for hydrogen
• Petrol releases more energy per kg when it burns then coal or wood

121
Cracking
• Cracking definition:
• Cracking involves breaking down larger alkanes into smaller more useful
alkanes and alkenes
• Cracking in the lab
• Paraffin is an alkane. Liquid paraffin can be cracked down:
• The porous pot catalyst is heater strongly
• The liquid paraffin is heater and evaporated
• The paraffin vapour passes over the hot porous pot and the hydrocarbon molecules
break down
• One of the products is ethane, which is a gas and collects in the tube

122
Early Atmosphere
• Mainly Carbon Dioxide Atmosphere due to huge volcanic activity for the first billion
years. Small part water vapour, ammonia and methane
• How is this known?
• Similar to other present planets in our solar system that aren’t adapted by life
• Increasing Oxygen:
• Earth cools and oceans form
• Forms of life evolve in the ocean and photosynthesis begins
• Oxygen builds up in the oceans
• Oxygen builds up in the atmosphere (3)
• Decreasing Carbon Dioxide
• Carbon dioxide dissolves in the ocean
• Marine organisms used the dissolved carbon dioxide to make carbonate shells
• The shells of dead marine organisms fall to the sea bed and become part of the sediment
• Over millions of years the layers of sediment become sedimentary rock

123
Greenhouse Effect
• In the greenhouse effect:
• Greenhous gases (CO2, methane, water vapour) in the atmosphere absorb
heat radiated from the earth
• The greenhouse gases then release energy in all directions
• This increases the global warming (warming of the atmosphere)
• Which causes climate change

124
(Atmosphere – Oxygen Test 1
2
Checking for oxygen levels in atmosphere test: (2)
(2)

2Cu(s) + O2(g) → 2CuO(s)

125
Single science content
 Flame Tests
Metal Flame Colour
Sodium Orange / Yellow
Calcium Brick Red
Barium Apple Green
Lithium Carmine Pink / red
Copper Green
Potassium Lilac

(3)

127
Sodium Hydroxide Tests
Substance Metal Ion Add 1cm cubed of NaOH Add Excess NaOH
Iron II Sufate Fe 2+ Dark green precipitate No change
Calcium Chloride Ca 2+ White precipitate No change
Magnesium Sulfate Mg 2+ White precipitate No change
1
Copper Sulfate Cu 2+ Blue gelatinous precipitate No change
Aluminium Sulfate Al 3+ White precipitate Dissolves
Iron III Chloride Fe 3+ Rusty orange precipitate No change

(4)

128
 Testing for anions
Ion Test Result Equation

Carbonate CO3 2- Hydrochloric Acid Fizzing bubbles of gas Na2CO3 + 2HCl  2NaCl + CO2 + H2O

Sulfate SO4 2- Add Barium Chloride White Precipitate CuSO4 + BaCl2  BaSO4(s) + CuCl2 +BaSO4

Chloride Cl - Add Silver Nitrate White Precipitate KCl + AgNO3 + HNO3  AgCl(s) + KNO3

Bromide Add Silver Nitrate Cream Precipitate KBr + AgNO3 + HNO3  AgBr(s) + KNO3

Iodide Add Silver Nitrate Yellow Precipitate KI + AgNO3 + HNO3  AgI(s) + KNO3

(4)

129
Testing for Ammonia gas
• Damp red litmus paper turns blue

130
Instrumental Methods
• Advantages:
• Sensitivity – they can detect and analyses small amounts of different
substances
• Accuracy – they measure amounts of different substances very accurately
• Speed
• Examples
• Mass spectrometry –
• measures M value and identifies compounds
r
• Infrared Spectroscopy –
• Detects covalent bonds and identifies compounds
• Gas Chromatography –
• Measures amounts of each component in mixtures

131
Flame Photometer
• Flame photometry is an instrumental method of analysis based on the
flame test
• The sample is vaporised in a hot flame
• A spectrum of a light emitted by metal ions is produced
• The brightness of particular wavelengths is produced
• The data produced can:
• Identify the metal ions present in the sample by comparing the spectrum with
a reference spectrum from a know substance
• Determine the concentration of ions in a solution using a calibration curve

Watch Here
132
Addition Polymerisation
• Definition
• Addition polymerisation are relatively large molecules made by combining
smaller alkenes
• You show equations for addition polymerisation using structures like this:
• Properties and uses:

133
Condensation Polymers
• Two monomers:
1. A carboxylic acid
2. An alcohol
• Forming an ester link:
• An ester link forms each time the two different monomers react together
• A water molecule is formed with each ester
• A hydroxide is taken from the carboxylic and a hydrogen is taken from the alcohol
• Result:
• When two different monomers react together, producing a water molecule:
• The other product molecule has a carboxylic acid group and an alcohol group
• These groups can react with more monomers to produce a very large polyester

134
Reactions and Alcohols
• Addition Reaction –
• 2 reactant molecules reacting to form just one product (1)
• Alcohol general formula –
• CnH2n+1OH (1)
• Hydroxyl Group –
• -O-H and the functional group of alcohols (1)
• Propan-1-ol means propanol where the hydroxyl group is at the first
Carbon
• Production of Ethanol Conditions needed for steam reactiong – high pressure (50-
• ethene + steam ethanol 100 atm) and high temperatures 200-400C
• Glucose  Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide (2) Conditions needed for fermentation – 25-40C and no air
YEAST
• Uses of Alcohol (3):
• Drinks; Fuel; Solvents (perfume) (2)
135
Alcohols
• Homologous Series of alcohols (4):
• Have the same functional group –OH
• Have similar chemical propertie
• Same general formulae (CnH2n+1OH)
• Reactions of alcohols
• Methanol, ethanol and propanol all:
• Dissolve in water to form a neutral solution
• React with sodium to produce hydrogen
• Burn in air
• NOTE: Oxygen atoms can have ½ mole numbers for reactions
• Oxidation of ethanol
• Ethanol burns in air to form CO2 and water
• Ethanol can be oxidised to ethanoic acid by:
• Chemicals called oxidising agents
• The action of microbes

136
Making Ethanol
• Fermentation
• Glucose  Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide
YEAST
• C6H12O6  2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2
• Fractional Distillation
• Fractional Distillation is used to obtain a concentrated solution of ethanol.
This works because:
• Ethanol has a lower boiling point than water

137
Carboxylic Acids
• Functional Group of Carboxylic Acids –

(1)

• Neutralisation Reaction
• Ethanoic Acid  Ethanoate Ion- + Hydrogen+
• CH3COOH ⇌ H+ + CH3COO- (2)

• Reactions with Alcohols

• Xthanol + Ythanoic Acid  Xthyl Ythanoate + Water
• Carboxylic Acid + Alcohol to form an Ester (2)
• Linking Group Definition –
• Part that bonds two molecules together (1)
138
Carboxylic Acids
• Homologous Series
• Have the same functional group –COOH
• Have similar chemical properties
• Same general formulae (CnH2n+1COOH)
• Show a gradual variation in physical properties
• Reactions of carboxylic acids
• Carboxylic acids have typical chemical properties of aicds. They can:
• React with carbonates to produce salt, water and carbon dioxide
• React with magnesium and other reactive metals to produce salt and hydrogen
• Dissolve in water to produce acidic solutions
• Weak Acids
• Carboxlic acids are weak acids. This is because…
• They only partially dissociate into ions when they dissolve in water

139
Biological Polymers
• DNA
• Has a double helix structure
• DNA is a polymer made from monomers called…
• nucleotides
• Proteins
• Proteins are polymers made from monomers called amino acids

140
Polymer Problems
• Crude Oil is (2):
• A finite resource
• A non-renewable resource
• Polymers are:
• Non-biodegradable
• Pro:
• Last a long time
• Con:
• Do not break down easily
• Disposing of Polymers (4):
• Landfill sites
• Running out and non-biodegradable
• Burning
• Release toxic gases into the atmosphere
• Recycling
• Reforming into new objects
• Biodegradable polymers
• Rot away 141
Investigating Combustion
• Aim:
• To investigate the temperature rise in a know mass of water by the combustin of methanol,
ethanol, propanol and butanol
• Method:
1. Securely clamp the calorimeter
2. Add a known volume of cold water to the calorimeter, then record its temperature
3. Measure and record the mass of a spirit lamp, including its fuel and lid
4. Place the spirit lamp underneath the calorimeter, at a height where you can comfortably
remove and replace its lid
5. Remove the map’s lid and light the wick
6. Stir the water as it is heated. When the temperature has increased sufficiently, replace the
lid to put out the flame
7. Measure and record the water temperature and the mass of the spirit lamp with lid
8. Empty the calorimeter and repeat
Watch Here

142
Investigating Combustion
• Aim:
• To investigate the temperature rise in a know mass of water by the combustin of methanol,
ethanol, propanol and butanol
• Method:
1. Securely clamp the calorimeter
2. Add a known volume of cold water to the calorimeter, then record its temperature
3. Measure and record the mass of a spirit lamp, including its fuel and lid
4. Place the spirit lamp underneath the calorimeter, at a height where you can comfortably
remove and replace its lid
5. Remove the map’s lid and light the wick
6. Stir the water as it is heated. When the temperature has increased sufficiently, replace the
lid to put out the flame
7. Measure and record the water temperature and the mass of the spirit lamp with lid
8. Empty the calorimeter and repeat
Watch Here

143
Nanoparticles
• Small Size
• Nanoparticles have a very small size, so
• Nanoparticulate materials have different properties from the same substance
in pieces of bulk
• This makes them useful for:
• Sunscreen – absorb UV light from the sn but cannot be seen on the skin
• Lightweight strong metals – such as carbon nanotubes
• Catalysts – very small SA: volume ratio
• Hazards and risks
• Breathed in and absorbed by cells
• Take a long time to break down
• Attract toxic substances to their surface

144
Bulk Materials

145
Contact and Non-Contact Forces
• Non-Contact Forces (3):
• Gravity
• Magnetism
• Electrostatic Charge
• Contact Forces (2):
• Normal Contact Force – acts in opposite direction
• Friction

146
Vectors and Scalars
• Scalar
• Magnitude but NO direction
• Vector
• Magnitude and direction
• Vector or Scalar?
• Displacement • Vector - "how far out of place an object is“ it is the object's overall change in position .
• Distance • Scalar
• Velocity • Vector
• speed • Scalar
• acceleration • Vector
• force • Vector
• Weight • Vector
• mass • Scalar
• Momentum • Vector
• energy • Scalar 147
Resultant Force
• Force =
• Change in Momentum
Time
• As a parachutist jumps, air resistance is low. As their speed increases
the air resistance increases until there is no resultant force and the
parachutist has a constant velocity
• Conservation of Momentum
• As objects collide the total momentum of both objects is the same before te
collision as it is after. Remember force is a vector. I they are going in opposite
directions, we give one a negative sign and one a positive sign.

148
Energy Transfer
• Sankey Diagram
• Conduction
• Vibrations are passed on between particles in a solid.
• Metals are good conductors
• Convection
• Part of a fluid that is warmer than the rest rises and sets up a convectional current
• Radiation
• The only way energy can be transferred through a vacuum
• Infrared Radiation is absorbed and emitted easily by dull, dark materials
• Rate of Energy being Transferred Factors:
• Thickness
• Thermal Conductivity
• Temperature Difference
• Closed System:
• Energy can flow in or out of the system, but there is no tranfer of mass. E.g. boiling
water with a lid.
149
Energy
• energy transferred (joule, J) is equal to work done (joule, J)
• in all system changes energy is dissipated so that it is stored in less
useful ways
• mechanical processes become wasteful when they cause a rise in
temperature so dissipating energy in heating the surrounding
• power is the rate at which energy is transferred
• producing pairs of forces which can be represented as vectors
(picture)
Single science content
Principle of Moments
• The principle of moments states that
• when in equilibrium the total sum of the anti clockwise moment is
equal to the total sum of the clockwise moment.
• When a system is stable or balance it is said to be in equilibrium as all
the forces acting on the system cancel each other out.
• The principle can be explained by considering two people on a
seesaw.
• Persons A’s moment = Persons B’s Moment
• Anticlockwise moment = Clockwise moment
• Therefore seesaw is in equilibrium.
Moments
• Moment =
• Force X distance normal to the direction of the force (m)
• Nm
• 3 Classes of Lever Class 1

Class 2

Class 3

153
Gears

High Gears and Low

Gears
A high gear is when a
large input gear turns a
smaller output gear. This
leads to a high speed
and a low turning effect
A low gear is when a
smaller input gear turns
a larger output gear. This
leads to a low speed and
a higher turning effect

154
Combined science
 Circuit Symbols
A.C.
supply

156
Circuit Knowledge
• Potential difference (voltage) is the energy transferred per unit charge
passed and hence that the volt is a joule per coulomb
• electric current as the rate of flow of charge
• and the current in metals is a flow of electrons
• when a closed circuit includes a source of potential difference there
will be a current in the circuit
• power as the energy transferred per second
• More POWER
Series Circuits
• Series Circuits =
• A series circuit contains just one loop, around which an electric current can flow
• Current in a Series Circuit
• Current is the flow of electrons around a circuit
• Electrons go anti-clockwise
• Current is never used up in a circuit. In a series circuit it is the same all the way round
• Potential Difference in a Series Circuit
• Potential Energy gives us the energy that a cell gives to the current
• It also tells us how much energy is used by a component in a circuit (e.g. a bulb)
• The Circuit above right shows that the cell is giving 9V of energy to the current, and
that the current is giving 9V of energy to the bulb
• Potential Difference across cell = total potential difference in the circuit 158
Parallel Circuits
• Current in a Parallel Circuit
• The sum of the currents in the branches must equal the
current leaving the cell.
• Voltage in a Parallel Circuit
• The potential difference across the cell = potential difference
across EACH branch

The potential difference

(voltage) is the energy
transferred per unit charge
passed and hence that the
volt is a joule per coulomb
159
Power
• power as the energy transferred per second and recall that it is
measured in watt
• electrical power (watt, W) = current squared (ampere2, A2) ×
resistance (ohm, Ω)
Ohm’s Law
• Ohm’s Law:
• The size of the current, l, flowing through a component of resistance, R, is
directly proportional to the potential difference, V, across the component at a
constant temperature
• Resistance
• The resistance of a component is a way of measuring how hard it is
for electricity to flow through it.
• The higher the total resistance, the lower the current.

162
Resistance
• We have less resistance when there is less flow.
• When we double the amount of identical paths, we halve the amount
of flow through each individual path.
• By doubling the amount of paths, we halve the resistance.
• Opening more doors makes it easier to exit the theater. Even if only
one person gets out through the new door, everyone else experiences
less competition for all the other doors.
Pros and Cons of Resistance
• Pros:
• The electric laundry is on electric toaster, electric oven, heater etc. are
used based upon joule’s heating
• It is also used to produce heating, Here filament retains heat as much
generated, and becomes hot and emits light
• Cons:
• Wasted energy
• insulation breakdown
• thermal expansion at mechanical joints which leads to further heating
• risk of fire or toxic smoke
 To reduce resistance increase its cross section, make it
Resistors shorter and reduce its temperature or change to a
material that has a lower resistivity if you can.

• The arrangement of resistors in series or parallel determines whether the

resistance in a circuit increase or decrease.
• Resistance occurs due to
• when there is an electric current in a resistor, there is an energy transfer which
heats the resistor
• electrical energy is dissipated as thermal energy in the surroundings when an
electrical current does work against electrical resistance
• Explain the energy transfers as the result of collisions between electrons and the
ions in the lattice
• How do you calculate Current if you have resistance and voltage?
• In series circuits
• Total Voltage is the same as across cell. Total resistance is given. I = V/R
• In Parallel Circuit
• Total current leaving the battery = sum of the current flowing through the separate branches

165
I-V Graphs
• An I-V Graph shows how the current flowing through the component
varies as the potential difference across it varies.

166
Heating Affect, LDR and Thermistor
• Light-Dependant Resistor-
• has a large resistance in the dark and less in light
• Thermistor –
• The higher the temperature the lower the resistance
• Current Heating Affect
• When there is an electrical current going through a resistor, energy is
transferred which heats the resistor.
• Unwanted thermal energy can be reduced using low-resistance wires. Wires
that are better conductor will waste less energy
• Advantages –
• Useful for heating water in a kettle
• Underfloor heaters
• Toasters, grills and ovens
• Disadvantages –
• Can lead to the appliance catching fire
167
 direct current (d.c.) is the movement of charge in one direction
only
A.c. and d.c. circuits in alternating current (a.c.) the movement of charge changes
direction

• Apparatus that measures current

• Oscilloscope
• Direct Current in an oscilloscope

• Alternating current in an oscilloscope

• Mains Supply Stats:

• Alternating potential difference = cells and batteries supply direct current (d.c.)
• 230V
• Frequency =
• 50 Hz – changes direction 100 times per second

168
Mains The live wire carries current to the appliance at a
high voltage. The neutral wire completes the The neutral wire completes
the circuit and carries
circuit and carries current away from the
current away from the
appliance.
appliance. The third wire,
called the earth wire
(green/yellow) is a safety
wire and connects the metal
1 6 case of the appliance to the
earth. This stops a fault
making the case of the
appliance live.
5 If a fault occurs where the
2 live wire connects to the
case, the earth wire allows a
large current to flow
through the live and earth
wires. This overheats the
fuse which melts and
breaks the circuit.
4
3

169
Earthing
1. The live wire inside the appliance may come loose and touch a metal
part of the casing
2. The large current heats and melts the wire in the fuse, making a break in
the circuit
3. The earth wire is connected to the metal casing and a large current flows
in through the live wire and out through the earth wire
4. The circuit is no longer completer, so there is no change of electric shock
or fire
5. By having an earth wire connected to the metal casing, the user is not at
risk if the live wire comes loose and touches anything metallic

170
Single science
Static Electricity
• Charges are EQUAL and OPPOSITE
• OPPOSITE charges ATRACT
• Lighting Strikes
• Ice Particles in clods gain electrons from other ice particles by friction as they
rub against each other
• The bottom of the cloud gains electrons
• Electrons in the ground repelled by the bottom of the cloud
• Lightning jumps to earth in a spark of electrons
• Electrostatic Induction

173
Electro-Static I
• You can get an electrostatic shock if you are electrically 'charged' and
you touch something that is earthed, or if you're earthed and you
touch something that is charged.
• For example, when you walk on a vinyl floor or a nylon carpet you
'charge up' because of friction. You can earth yourself, and so get an
electrostatic shock by touching a metal door handle, water pipe, or
even another person.

174
Electro-Static II - Problems
• Problems with static
• Here are some examples of problems associated with static:
• it is a nuisance when dust and dirt are attracted to insulators such as TV
screens and computer monitors.
• it is a nuisance when clothes made from synthetic materials cling to each
other and to the body, especially just after they've been in a tumble dryer
• Anti-static sprays, liquids and cloths prevent the build-up of charge by
allowing it to conduct away.

175
Electro-Static III - Dangers
• Static electricity can build up in clouds. This can cause a huge spark to form
between the ground and the cloud. This causes lightning – a flow of charge
through the atmosphere.
• Here are some examples of dangers associated with static electricity:
• It is dangerous when there are flammable gases or a high concentration of oxygen. A
spark could ignite the gases and cause an explosion.
• It is dangerous when you touch something with a large electric charge on it. The
charge will flow through your body causing an electric shock. This could cause burns
or even stop your heart. A person could die from an electric shock.
• Refuelling aircrafts and tankers also poses a particular danger. If the fuel passing
along the hose to the vehicle was allowed to build up a static charge, a resulting
spark might ignite the fuel. The hoses are earthed to stop this occurring.
• Watch Here

176
Electrostatic Dangers
• When tankers, cars or aircraft move, friction occurs between the boy
of the vehicle and the air. This results in electrons being trandferred
and the vehicle becoming charged.
• Friction between fuel and the pipe it is flowing through can also cause
the transfer of electrons so that the fuel and pipe become charged
• If the charge is not removed from an aeroplane or tanker, then a
spark may occur when the nozzle of the fuel tanker touches the
aeroplane. The spark is an uncontrolled discharge of electrons and it
can ignite fuel vapours and cause an explosion.
• Earthing is used to ensure safe movement of electrons off the surgace
to avoid a dangerous build up.
177
Attraction of Charge to Uncharged objects
• This is due to the phenomenon of "Charging by Induction".
• When a charged body(say negatively charged) is brought near an
uncharged one, it induces an opposite charge(positive) on it and
hence attracts it towards itself. This can be explained as follows :-
• The negatively charged body can be thought to be an electron rich
specie. When brought near the uncharged body, it repels the free
electrons from the uncharged body towards its farther end. As such,
the closer end of the uncharged body now experiences lack of
electrons, which is a characteristic of positive charge. Hence, the ends
of the two bodies develop opposite charges and mutual attraction
occurs.
Combined science
Electrostatic Uses
• Uses (2):
• Insecticide Sprayers:
• Nozzle of spray is connected to electricity supply
• Droplets all get the same charge
• Droplets repel each other so the spray spreads evenly
• Paint Sprayers
• Nozzle of spray is connected to electricity supply
• Droplets all get the same charge
• The object being painted is given the opposite charge to the paint
• The paint is attracted to the object and so less paint is waster

180
Magnetic Fields
• The magnetic field is strongest at the poles
• Magnetic materials (4):
• Cobalt
• Steel
• Iron
• Nickel
• A permanent magnet…
• has poles which are N and S all the time
• A temporary magnet…
• Can be magnetised by bringing a permanent magnet near to it. When the
permanent magnet is removed, the temporary magnet loses its magnetism

182
Electrical Fields An electric field as the region where an electric charge
experiences a force

• The region around a charged object/particle in which another charge

object/particle will have force exerted onto it
• These fields are radial. The strength is greatest nearer the charge
• Greater arrows mean greater charge
• magnetic forces are due to interactions between magnetic fields
Uniformed fields
Radial fields

183
Plotting Compasses
Goes FROM
NORTH to
SOUTH

• How to work a plotting compass

• Lay a bar magnet on a piece of paper
• Put the plotting compass by one pole of the magnet
• Draw a dot by the needle away from the magnet
• Move the plotting compass so that the other point is by the dot you
have just drawn
• Continue until you have mapped around the whole magnet

184
Magnets
Charged Pesticides attract to
plants due to induction

• f these metals have not been turned into a permanent magnet they
will still be attracted to a magnet if placed within a magnetic field. In
this situation they act as a magnet - but only whilst in the magnetic
field. This is called induced magnetism.
• Substances that can be permanently magnetised are described as
magnetically hard. These are often alloys of iron, nickel and cobalt.
• Substances that can only be temporarily magnetised are described as
magnetically soft. Alloys with less iron, nickel or cobalt will be
magnetically soft and have a weaker magnetic field. Alloys of iron are
called ferrous and those without iron are called non-ferrous.
Current and Magnetism

187
 The Solenoid inside a solenoid, the fields from individual coils
add together to form a very strong almost uniform field along
Right Fist Rule works for straight EM Magnet (current = the centre of the solenoid
thumb, fingers – direction of magnet) cancel to give a weaker field outside the solenoid
Swap this over for a solenoid

S N

188
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
magnetic forces are due to interactions between magnetic
fields

• An electrical current flowing through a wire has a magnetic field

• If you put the wire into the field of another magnet the two fields
affect each other and the wire experiences a force
• This is called the motor effect
• The maximum force on the wire occurs when the current is at right
angles to the lines of the magnetic field
• We can work out the direction of the force using Fleming’s left-hand
rule

189
 force on a conductor at right angles to a magnetic
field carrying a current (newton, N) = magnetic flux

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule II density (tesla, T or newton per ampere metre, N/A
m) × current (ampere, A) × length (metre, m)

• There is no force if the current is parallel to the field lines

• If the direction of either the current or the magnetic field is reversed
the direction of the force is reversed
• The size of the force can be increase by increasing the strength of the
magnetic field or increasing the size of the current
• NOTE: FLEMINGS LEFT HAND RULE WORKS WITH A CONVENTIONAL
CURRENT (+ to -)
• Watch

190
Electromagnetic Induction
• Inducing a Current in a Wire
• If you mover part of a loop of wire in a magnetic field, an electric current will flow in
the wire.
• This is called electromagnetic induction and the current is an induced current
• You can et the same effect by keeping the wire still and moving the magnet
• Watch
• Factors that affect the induced voltage:
• Change direction of the current by:
• Changing the direction of motion of the wire
• Changing the direction of the magnetic field
• You can increase the size of the current by:
• Moving the wire faster
• Using stronger magnets
• Using more loops of wire

191
Generators
• This diagram shows a simple generator. The generators in power stations
work ina similar war to the one in the diagram:
1. Permanent magnets produce a magnetic fields.
2. One side has back to front current
3. The other has a front to back current
4. Moves the iron core up (and round)
5. The end of the coil are connected to slip ring.
6. These allow the coil the spin without twisting the wire
7. Carbon brushes press on the slip rings to make electrical contract with the rest of
the circuit
8. Causes an alternating current
WATCH
Watch – a.c vs d.c.

192
Microphone – How it Works
Single science
1. Wires carry electrical and audio signals
2. The Sound waves are made up of areas of high pressure and low
pressure
3. As the diaphragm moves in and out, a varying potential difference is
included across the ends of the wire, producing a varying electrical
current
4. The high pressure areas (compressions) of the sound waves push the
diaphragm in and the low pressure areas of the sound wave
(rarefactions) cause the diaphragm to move outwards
5. A varying electrical current then travels through the wires until it reaches
the loudspeaker

193
Load Speaker – How it Works
Single science
• Loudspeakers transform electrical signals into sound. Inside a loudspeaker
there is a permanent magnet. An electromagnet attached to the speaker
cone is inside the magnet field of the permanent magnet.
• The electrical current from the amplifier is continually changing direction
which, in turn, causes the magnetic field around the electromagnet to
continually change.
• The changing attraction and repulsion between the permanent magnet’s
magnetic field and the electromagnet’s magnetic field make the
electromagnet move back and forth.
• In turn, the speaker cone vibrates back and forth, which generates sound
waves. The frequency at which the current changes direction is the
frequency of the sound that the speaker produces.
194
Bell – How it works
• When the current flows through the ciruit, the electromagnet makes a
magnetic field
• The electromagnet attracts the springy metal arm.
• The arm hits the gong, which makes a sound.
• The circuit is broken now the arm is out of position.
• The electromagnet is turned off and the springy metal arm moves
back.
• The circuit is complete again.
• The cycle repeats as long as the switch is closed.
195
Transformers
• Transformers can be used to change the potential difference of an
alternating electricity supply
• When an alternating current flows through the primary coil it
produces a changing magnetic field in the iron core
• This magnetic field induces an alternating potential difference across
the secondary coil
• The alternating potential difference in the secondary coil leads to an
alternating current when the circuit is completed
• Watch

196
Transformers
Single science
potential difference across primary coil (volt, V) × current in
primary coil (ampere, A) = potential difference across
secondary coil (volt, V) × current in secondary coil (ampere, A)
Potential Difference and Turns
Single science
• Potential Difference = Voltage
• Transformer Equation…
• Voltage across primary coil/ voltage across secondary coil =
• Number of turns in primary coil/number of turns in secondary coil
• Transformer Efficiency
• If is assumed that transformers are 100% efficient.
• Connected in equation…
• Voltage across primary coil X current in primary coil (A) =
• Voltage across secondary coil X current in secondary coil (A)

200
   Solid Liquid Gas

Particles Arrangement of Close together Close together Far apart

particles
Regular pattern Random arrangement Random arrangement

Movement of particles Vibrate on the spot Move around each Move quickly in all
other directions

Diagram

201
Describe that when substances melt,
freeze, evaporate, boil, condense or
sublimate mass is conserved and that
these physical changes differ from some
chemical changes because the material
recovers its original properties if the
change is reversed
Specific Heat Capacity
• Specific Heat Capacity
• Definition:
• Specific Heat Capacity is the thermal energy that must be transferred to change the
temperature of 1kg of a material by 1℃
• Change in thermal energy (J) =
• Mass (Kg) x Specific Heat Capacity J/kg℃ x change in temperature
• Absolute 0 =
• -273℃
• What is absolute 0?
• As a gas cooled the average speed of its particles fall and its volume gets smaller
• At 0K, there is no movement of particles and its gas volume shrinks to 0

204
Specific Latent Heat
• Definition
• Specific latent heat is the energy that must be transferred to change 1kg of a
material from one state of matter to another
• There are two types
1. Specific latent heat of fusion
• Change of state between a solid an a liquid – during melting and freezing
2. Specific latent heat of vaporisation
1. Change in state between liquid and gas
• NOTE: there is not temperature change whilst each is occurring

205
Single science
 gases can be compressed or expanded by pressure changes

Pressure and Temperature

• Gas pressure depends on the motion of the particles in the has
• Pressure can be increased by:
• Increasing the temperature of the gas
• Increasing the mass of the gas
• Decreasing the volume of the gas
• The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at a constant volume depends on the
temperature of the gas. When the temperature increases:
1. The gas molecules have a greater average kinetic energy
2. The gas molecules move faster
3. There are more collisions between the molecules and the walls of the contained
each second
4. More force is exerted on the same area each second
5. The pressure of the gas increases
208
Volume and Pressure
• Doing work on gas
• When a gas is compressed quickly, its volume decreases quickly and
its temperature can rise.
• This is because work is being on e in compressing the gas
• This leads to an increase in the temperature of the gas due to the
work causing an increase in the average kinetic energy of the articles
in the gas
• One such example is the warming is of the air inside a bicycle pump
when it is used to inflate a tire

209
 WORK IS DONE ON THE PUMP –
Volume and Pressure II CAUSING A TRANSFER OF ENERGY
TO THERMAL

why doing work on a gas can increase its

temperature, including a bicycle pump

the pressure of a gas produces a net force at right angles to any

surface
210
Combined science
Elasticity
• Elastic Distortion =
• A Material will return to its original shape when the deforming force is
removed
• Inelastic Distortion =
• Opposite
• Force Exerted on a Spring (N) =
• Spring Constant (N/m) x extension
• Hooke's Law
• states that the force needed to compress or extend a spring is directly
proportional to the distance you stretch it

212
Single science
Elasticity
• Bending
• Requires two forces acting, one clockwise; one anticlockwise
• Stretching
• Requires two forces of tension acting away from each other
• Compression
• Involves two equal forces acting towards one another

217
Upthrust pressure in fluids causes a force normal to any surface

• A body floating in a fluid is subject to an upwards force called the up

thrust.
• This force is equal to the weight of the fluid that is displaced
• This is why a small weight will float higher up in water than a large
weight
• A body will float in a fluid if its density is less than that of the fluid
• A fluid is a liquid or a gas

218
Pressure and Fluids
• Pressure ue to a colum of liquid (Pa) =
• Height of column (m) X density of liquid (kg/m3) X g (N/kg)
• Atmospheric Pressure
• 100 000 Pa

Explain how the factors (upthrust, weight, density of fluid)

influence whether an object will float or sink

219