Aircraft Engines

Block 3 Day 14
Mr. Mollah
Theory of Thrust

• Aircraft require thrust to produce enough

speed for the wings to provide lift or
enough thrust to overcome the weight of
the aircraft for vertical takeoff. For an
aircraft to remain in level flight, thrust must
be provided that is equal to and in the
opposite direction of the aircraft drag. This
thrust, or propulsive force, is provided by a
suitable type of aircraft heat engine.

What is thrust?
• Thrust is the force which
moves an aircraft through the
air. Thrust is generated by the
engines of the airplane
THE HEAT ENGINE
• Modern heavier-than-air aircraft utilize thrust
to remain in flight.
• This thrust is provided by a heat engine.
• All heat engines convert chemical energy (fuel)
into heat energy.
• This heat energy is converted into mechanical
energy which is harnessed to provide thrust.
• In all heat engines the working fluid (fuel/air
mixture) is compressed to a high pressure
relative to the atmosphere.
ENGINE TYPES
• Reciprocating - utilizes reciprocating pistons.
• Turboprop - turbine-driven compressor.
• Turbojet - turbine-driven compressor.
• Ramjet - ram compression due to high flight
speed.
• Pulse-jet - compression due to combustion.
• Rocket - compression due to combustion.
GENERAL AVIATION REQUIREMENTS
• Efficiency- the engine must be able to operate
efficiently under a wide range of atmospheric
conditions.
• Economy- the engine must be economic to produce,
run, and maintain.
• Reliability- the engine must be able to endure
long periods of operation at high power settings
without failure
OPERATION SPECIFIC ENGINES
• The engine selected for an aircraft depends on
the type of flying it will do.
• Propeller driven aircraft are more fuel efficient
at low speeds, while jet powered aircraft are
more efficient at high speeds.
• This high speed efficiency is more economical on
long trips.
• Turboprop aircraft combine the reliability of a
turbine engine with the low speed (short trip)
efficiency of a propeller driven aircraft. These
turbine driven engines are able to operate at
higher altitudes, giving them an operational
advantage. (these benefits come at a cost)
RECIPROCATING ENGINE TYPES
• Reciprocating engines are normally classified by
cylinder arrangement.
• In-line
• V-type
• Radial
• Horizontally opposed
• Diesel
RECIPROCATING ENGINE TYPES
• They are further categorized by the number of
cylinders and the method of cooling.
• Engines are either air cooled or liquid cooled.
In either case excess heat is transferred to the
surrounding air.
• An air cooled engine transfers heat from the
cylinders directly to the air flow routed around
the cylinders.
• A liquid cooled engine transfers heat from the
cylinders to a liquid coolant which in turn
transfers the heat to the airflow through the
radiator.
• Most aircraft engines are air cooled. (this
method is lighter and cheaper but not as
effective)
Types of engines

• Inline Engines generally has an even number of cylinders.

This engine may be either liquid cooled or air cooled and
has only one crank shaft.
• This type of engine is confined to low- and medium-
horsepower engines used in very old light aircraft
• The inline engine has a small frontal area When mounted
with the cylinders in an inverted position, it offers the
added advantages of a shorter landing gear and greater
pilot visibility
In-lineAdvantages

Advantages
• streamlined (less drag)
• visibility (if inverted)
Disadvantages
• long crankshaft (limits power output)
• ground clearance
• ineffective cooling of rear cylinders
Types of engines
Opposed type Engines has two banks of cylinders directly opposite each other with a crankshaft in the center. The pistons of both cylinder
banks are connected to the single crankshaft
Air-cooled version is used predominantly in aviation
The opposed-type engine has a low weight-to-horsepower ratio, its narrow silhouette makes it ideal for horizontal installation on the aircraft
wings (twin engine applications). Another advantage is its low vibration characteristics
Horizontally Opposed

Advantages
• streamlined (less drag)
• visibility
• less vibration
Disadvantages
• limited power (crankshaft length)
• uneven cooling
Types of engines

V-Type Engines the cylinders are

arranged in two in-line banks
generally set 60° apart. Most of the
engines have 12 cylinders, which are
either liquid cooled or air cooled.
The engines are designated by a V
followed by a dash and the piston
displacement in cubic inches
V-type
Advantages
• visibility
Disadvantages
• limited power (crankshaft length)
• uneven cooling
Types of engines
Radial Engines consists of a row, or rows, of cylinders arranged radially about a central crankcase.
This type of engine has proven to be very rugged and dependable
The number of cylinders which make up a row may be three, five, seven, or nine

Radial engines are still used in some older cargo planes, war birds, and crop spray planes. Although
many of these engines still exist, their use is limited
Radial
Advantages
• power (rows of cylinders can be added while
maintaining a short crankshaft)
• cooling
Disadvantages
• drag
• Hydraulic lock (oil tends to pool in the low
cylinder during extended shutdown periods) This
problem cause major engine damage if the engine
is started. The problem can be detected by hand
pulling the engine and then draining the oil by
removing the spark plug.
Reciprocating Engine Components
• Basic components and mechanical principles are
shared by all reciprocating engines.
• Different types of cylinder arrangement, cooling
type, and fuel require different component
arrangements.
• Engine components are made of materials chosen
for their combination of strength, durability,
weight, and heat resistance (ability to maintain
structural integrity over repeated heating and
cooling cycles).
• The basic major components of a reciprocating engine are the crankcase, cylinders,
pistons, connecting rods, valves, valve-operating mechanism, and crankshaft
 • The crankcase is the main structure of the

Crankcase engine
which contains the bearings for the
crankshaft.
• The crankcase is designed to house the
crankshaft, camshafts, and lubricating oil.
• Externally the crankcase must
accommodate the
cylinders and peripheral or accessory
components.
• Aircraft crankcases are usually made of
cast or
forged aluminum alloy because of its
lightweight
and strength. (Forged steel is used in
some high
output engines).
• The crankcase must be able to endure
multidirectional forces, vibration and
extreme
operating temperatures.
Crankshaft • The crankshaft transforms
the reciprocating
(linear up and down) motion
of the pistons into
rotary force for the propeller.
• The crankshaft is exposed to
most of the forces
developed by the engine.
• The length of the crankshaft
then becomes one of
the main limiting factors
when designing an
engine.
Crankshaft Balance
Excessive vibration is caused by a crankshaft that is not balanced.
Excessive vibration in an engine not only results in fatigue failure of the
metal structures, but also causes the moving parts to wear rapidly
Crankshafts are balanced for static balance and dynamic balance
Crankshaft Balance
• Dynamic Dampers
Crankshaft Components
• Main journal rotates within
the main bearing.
• Rod journal rotates within
the connecting rod
bearing.
• Counterweight used to
balance the crankshaft and
reduce vibration.
CONNECTING ROD

• The connecting rod is the link which transmits the

force exerted on a piston to a crankshaft. Most
connecting rods are made of a durable steel alloy;
however, aluminum can be used with low
horsepower engines. One end of a connecting rod
connects to the crankshaft and is called the
crankpin end, while the other end connects to the
piston and is called the piston end. The three
types of connecting rod assemblies you should be
familiar with are the plain-type, the master-and-
articulated-rod type, and the fork-and-blade type
 PISTONS • The piston in a
reciprocating engine is a
cylindrical plunger that
moves up and down
within a cylinder. Pistons
perform two primary
functions; first, they draw
fuel and air into a
cylinder, compress the
gases, and purge burned
exhaust gases from the
cylinder; second, they
transmit the force
produced by combustion
to the crankshaft.
 • Piston rings fit into grooves on the
Piston Rings side of the
piston and form the seal between
the piston and
cylinder wall.
• The rings are designed with a gap
which is forced
closed when the piston is inserted
into the
cylinder to form a spring-loaded
seal.
• Compression gas sealing Piston
rings maintain
gas compression between the
piston and cylinder
wall. They prevent combustion
gas from escaping.
A leak would cause a decrease in
power
Piston Ring Function
• Lubricating oil film control The cylinder walls
must be coated with a thin film of lubricating
oil, to reduce friction, and prevent damage to
the cylinder and piston. The oil ring controls
this thin film of oil
• Heat transfer Piston rings transfer heat from
the piston to the cylinder. The heat is then
removed form the cylinder by an air or liquid
cooling system
• Piston support piston rings help keep the piston
tracking properly within the cylinder. If the
piston were to incline within the cylinder and
touch the cylinder walls it would cause the
engine to fail.
Piston Pins
• A piston pin joins the piston to the connecting rod. A typical
piston pin is machined in the form of a tube from a nickel-
steel alloy forging that is casehardened. Piston pins are
sometimes called wrist pins because of the similarity
between the relative motions of the piston and the
connecting rod and that of the human arm
Cylinders

The cylinder head of an air cooled engine is generally made of aluminum

alloy because aluminum alloy is a good conductor of heat and its light
weight reduces the overall engine weight
Cylinder heads are forged or die-cast for greater strength. The inner shape
of a cylinder head is generally semispherical. The shape is a stronger design
and aids in a more rapid and thorough scavenging of the exhaust gases

Each cylinder is an assembly of two major parts: cylinder head and cylinder
barrel. At assembly, the cylinder head is expanded by heating and then
screwed down on the cylinder barrel, which has been chilled. When the
head cools and contracts and the barrel warms up and expands, a gastight
joint results
Cylinders

The portion of the engine in which the power is developed is called the
cylinder
The cylinder provides a combustion chamber where the burning and
expansion of gases take place, and it houses the piston and the
connecting rod
There are four major factors that need to be considered in the design and
construction of the cylinder assembly. It must:
1. Be strong enough to withstand the internal pressures developed
during engine operation.
2. Be constructed of a lightweight metal to keep down engine weight.
3. Have good heat-conducting properties for efficient cooling.
4. Be comparatively easy and inexpensive to manufacture, inspect, and
maintain.
Cylinders
• The cylinder heads of an air-cooled engine house
the intake and exhaust valves.
• The cylinder barrels house the piston and
connecting rod assembly.
• The cylinder head of an air-cooled engine is
usually made of aluminum alloy due to its heat
conductivity properties and light weight.
Cylinder Barrels • The material used to construct
a cylinder barrel must be as
light as possible yet have the
proper characteristics for
operating under high
temperatures and pressures.
Furthermore, a cylinder barrel
must possess good bearing
characteristics as well as high
tensile strength. The most used
material that meets these
requirements is a high strength
steel alloy such as chromium-
molybdenum steel, or nickel
chromium molybdenum steel.
• The cylinder barrel is made of a
steel alloy forging with the inner
surface hardened to resist wear of
the piston and the piston rings
which bear against it
Cylinder Heads
The purpose of the cylinder head is
to provide a place for combustion of
the fuel/air mixture
The intake and exhaust valve ports
are located in the cylinder head along
with the spark plugs and the intake
and exhaust valve actuating
mechanisms
As the piston travels from the intake
stroke into the compression stroke
The fuel/air mixture is ignited by the
spark in the combustion chamber
and commences burning (top of its
travel) on the compression stroke.
The ignited charge is rapidly
expanding at this time, and pressure
is increasing so that, as the piston
travels through the top dead center
position, it is driven downward
creating the power stroke
 • The cylinders of a
Firing Order reciprocating engine are
always assigned numbers
• The numbering theme varies
depending on the type
of engine and the engine
manufacturer
• The firing order is the
sequence the firing of
the cylinders occurs in
• The firing order of an engine
is designated in
such a way as to reduce
vibration
 • The fuel/air mixture or
Valves charge enters the
combustion chamber
through the intake valve
while
the burned gases are
expelled through the
exhaust
valve
• The valves are housed within
the cylinder head
• Valves are subjected to
extreme operating
conditions within the
combustion chamber
Valve Operation

• The valves are held closed by springs and

actuated to the open position by mechanical
linkage made up of a tappet (lifter), pushrod and
rocker arm
• The lobes on the camshaft push the tappet,
pushrod and rocker arm assembly upwards which in
turn opens the corresponding valve
• The opening and closing of each valve must be
synchronized with the with the movement of the
piston
Valve
Operating
Mechanisms
Camshaft • Valve lift the distance the
valve is lifted off
its seat
• Valve duration the length of
time the valve is
held open
• The camshaft is responsible
for actuating the
tappet, pushrod, and rocker
arm assembly
• The shape of the cam lobes
determine the valve
duration and lift
Camshaft • The camshaft is driven by a
gear which is
directly connected to a gear
attached to the
crankshaft.
• The camshaft always rotates
at half the speed of
the crankshaft.
• This timing allows each
piston to complete its
four-stroke cycle. (the valves
will remain closed
for two of the four piston
strokes)
 • Bearing any surface which
Bearing supports, or is
supported by another
surface.
• Bearings are used within
engines to reduce
friction between rotating
components.
• There are three distinct
types of bearings
• Plain
• Ball
• Roller
Plain Bearings
• Plain designed to handle radial loads. Used for the crankshaft, cam
shaft, connecting rods. Lubricated through oil channels, or made of
self lubricating materials (bushings)
Roller Bearings
•  Roller Can be designed to withstand both radial and thrust
loads. Used for crankshafts is high performance engines
Ball Bearings
• Ball Used for superchargers impeller shaft bearings, and some rocker
arm applications
REDUCTION GEARING
Propellers are efficient through
a limited range of rpm.
Depending on engine output
and propeller design reduction
gearing may be necessary.
Three common forms are
• Spur and pinion
• Spur planetary
• Bevel planetary
Cylinder
Numbering
Firing Order
The Sequence in which the power event occurs in the different
cylinders. Designed to provide for balance and to eliminate
vibration
Theory of Thrust
All heat engines have in common the ability to convert heat energy into
mechanical energy by the flow of some mass (generally air) through the
engine. The heat energy is released at a point in the cycle where the
working pressure ( heat energy of exhaust) is high relative to atmospheric
pressure
This creates the propulsive force which is obtained by the displacement
of a working pressure (air). By displacing air in a direction opposite to that
in which the aircraft is propelled, thrust can be developed. This is an
application of Newton’s third law of motion. It states that for every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction. So, as air is being displaced to the
rear of the aircraft the aircraft is moved forward by this principle
Types of Engines
Most of the current aircraft engines are of the internal combustion type
because the combustion process takes place inside the engine
Aircraft engines come in many different types, such as gas turbine
based, reciprocating piston, rotary, two or four cycle, spark ignition,
diesel, and air or water cooled.
 Reciprocating Engines Air Cooled
Reciprocating engines may be classified according to the cylinder
arrangement (in line, V-type, radial, and opposed) or according to the
method of cooling (liquid cooled or air cooled)
Piston engines are cooled by transferring excess heat to the
surrounding air. In air-cooled engines, this heat transfer is direct from
the cylinders to the air.
Therefore, it is necessary to provide thin metal fins on the cylinders of
an air-cooled engine in order to have increased surface for sufficient
heat transfer
Liquid cooled Reciprocating Engines
In liquid-cooled engines, the heat is transferred from the cylinders to
the coolant, which is then sent through tubing and cooled within a
radiator placed in the airstream. The coolant radiator must be large
enough to cool the liquid efficiently. The main problem with liquid
cooling is the added weight of coolant, heat exchanger (radiator), and
tubing to connect the components. Liquid cooled engines do allow high
power to be obtained from the engine safely