Metrology

BY: LUIZ ANGELO L. VILLEGAS

Introduction
 "MEASUREMENT“ is the determination of the size or magnitude of
something "Or" The comparison of unknown quantity with some
standard quantity of the same rates is known as measurement.
Metrology is defined as "the science of measurement, embracing
both experimental and theoretical determinations at any level of
uncertainty in any field of science and technology".
Units and Standards
C.G.S. System of Units:
Centimeter – Gram – Second system of unit
M.K.S. System of Units:
Meter – kilogram – second system of units
International System (SI) of Units:
the meter (m), kilogram (k), second (s), and ampere (A) of the MKSA system and, in addition, the
Kelvin (K) and the candela (cd) as the units of temperature and luminous
Definitions
Correctness/Accuracy - Degree of conformity of a measured or calculated value to some
recognized standard or specific value. The difference between the measured and true value is the
error of the measurement. Precision is the repeatability of the measuring process, or how well
identically performed measurement agree, which concept applies to a set of measurements.
Tolerance/Allowance - Tolerance is the amount of variation permitted in the part of total
variation allowed in a given dimension while allowance is the minimum clearance space intended
between the mating parts and represents the conditions of tightest possible fit.
Standard - Something that is set up and established by authority as a rule for the measure of
quantity, weight, extent, value or quality.
Sensitivity/Readability - Sensitively and readability are primarily associated with the measuring
process. Sensitivity is the ability of a measuring device to detect small differences in a quality
being measured, while readability is the susceptibility of a measuring device to having its
indication converted to a meaningful number.
Measurement Concepts
The International System of Units (SI)
- is the modern form of the metric system. It is the only system of measurement with an official
status in nearly every country in the world. It comprises a coherent system of units of
measurement starting with seven base units, which are the second (the unit of time, s), meter
(length, m), kilogram (mass, kg), ampere (electric current, A), kelvin (thermodynamic
temperature, K), mole (amount of substance, mol), and candela (luminous intensity, cd).
Classification of the
Common Measuring
Instruments Used in the
Industry
Graduated Manual Measuring Tools
Rules - the most generally used graduated measuring instrument in the industrial metrology
field for approximately determining linear dimensions, which are made with various dimensions,
graduations, and accuracies. Rules shall be manufactured or carbon steel or stainless steel.

Shrink Rules Hook Rules Tapered Rules

Graduated Manual Measuring Tools
Calipers - an instrument for measuring external or internal dimensions, having two hinged legs
resembling a pair of compasses and in-turned or out-turned points.

Dial Caliper
Vernier Caliper
Graduated Manual Measuring Tools
Protractor - consists of a rectangular head graduated in degrees along a semicircle, with a blade
pivoted on the center pin, any angle from 0 to 180" can be set.
Graduated Manual Measuring Tools
Dial Indicator - a dial indicator is composed. Of a graduated dial, spindle, pointers and a
satisfactory means of supporting or clamping it firmly, which is used to measuring inaccuracies
in alignment eccentricity, and deviations on surfaces supposed to be parallel. In gaging work, it
gives a direct reading of tolerance variations from the exact size. Dial indicators are classified as
American Gage Design standard indicators and dial test indicators.
Graduated Manual Measuring Tools
Planimeter - the planimeter is a tool for checking the flatness of plane surfaces to tenths-of-
thousandths of a centimeter and consists of a diabase straight edge, an adjustable mounting for
the straight edge, and a 0.00005 cm. reading indicator. The straight edge is always in the same
reference plane at every position on the surface being checked. Readings are taken under the
straight edge and recorded directly into the contour chart of the plane being checked. Points of
equal height are connected to form a visual picture of the high and low points in the plane.
Extreme care shall be taken in handling this gage to retain its accuracy and not to damage the
surface being checked.
Non-Graduated Manual Measuring Tools
Bevels - consists of two three-non-graduated slotted blades with one or two screws and knurled
nuts connecting them, by loosening the nuts, the blades can be set to varying angles. With this
tool, one can easily transfer angles from a master to a work piece or vice versa with moderate
accuracy.
Non-Graduated Manual Measuring Tools
Trammels - used in sizes beyond the range of dividers, consist of a long bar on which two arms
or trammels slide. Trammels are designed for layout work and use inside, outside or divider legs
and some are furnished with ball points, to permit working from holes. Some are also furnished
with an adjustable screw on one of the trams, for fine adjustment of the point for easy setting.
Non-Graduated Manual Measuring Tools
Gages - a gage is a device used to determine whether the part has been made to the tolerance
required and does not usually indicate a specific dimension.

Telescoping gage Surface Gage

Non-Graduated Manual Measuring Tools
Straight edges - are flat length of tools or stainless steel, ground to extremely fine tolerance,
particularly at the edges. They are used for scribing accurate, straight lines and to check surfaces
for straightness.
Special Purpose Measuring Tools
Tap and Drill Gages - consist of a flat rectangle of steel with holes accurately drilled and
identified according to their size. These cover letter size, number size, fractional size and
National Fine and Coarse Thread Series.
Special Purpose Measuring Tools
Wire Gages - are round steel plates with slots of ascending width along their edge. Each hole is
numbered according to its size in terms of various standard gages. In the tap and drill Gage and
wire Gage, the drill, tap, or wire is placed through the hole or in the slot and the smallest hole or
slot which will accommodate the piece denotes the size of the measured item.
Special Purpose Measuring Tools
Screw Pitch Gages - consist of a metal case containing many separate leaves. Each leaf has teeth
corresponding to a definite pitch. By matching the teeth with the thread on work, the correct
pitch can be read directly from the leaf.
Special Purpose Measuring Tools
Radius Gages - are individual leaves or a set of leaves in a case and are designed to check both
convex and concave radii.
Special Purpose Measuring Tools
Thickness/Feeler Gage - consists of a number of thin blades/leaves of different thickness an used
in checking clearances, backlash in gears and for gaging in narrow points or places.
Non-Destructive Inspection
Hardness Measurement - In determining Magnetic Particle Inspections - In this type of
the hardness of mild steel and non-ferrous inspection, cracks, voids, and material
alloys, a penetration hardness tester is discontinuities can be detected through the
utilized and mostly semi-portable. setting up to intense magnetic field in the parts
to be inspected. This method is used to
indicate surface imperfections in any material
that can be magnetized.
Non-Destructive Inspection
Radiographic Inspection - This is Fluorescent Penetrants - These are
accomplished by exposing a part to used to find surface defects in
either X-rays, gamma rays, or almost any material.
radioisotopes and viewing the image
created by the radiation on a
fluoroscope or film.
Non-Destructive Inspection
Ultrasonic Testing - In ultrasonic testing Eddy Current Testing. This method is
a high frequency vibration or supra- useful for flaw detection, sorting by
audible signal I directed into the part to metallurgical properties such as hardness
be tested to determine the metal and thickness measurement. The changes
thickness precisely. of magnitude and phase difference can be
used to sort parts according to alloy,
temper, and other metallurgical
properties.
Pressure and Vacuum Measurements
Pressure measurement by balancing an unknown pressure against a known force is the simplest
and oldest method that will automatically balance the static pressure being measured against a
resisting force whose magnitude can be read directly from the instrument or can be easily
computed.

Liquid-Column Gages Bell-Type Gages

Pressure and Vacuum Measurements
Pressure measurement by deformation of an elastic membrane is the most universally used for
measuring high and medium-pressure because of its simplicity, compactness and maintenance-
free property. It is also widely used in the field of low-pressure measurement where a large
actuating force is not needed.

Bourdon Tube Gage

Pressure and Vacuum Measurements
Electromechanical pressure instruments usually employ a mechanical means for detecting the
pressure, and an electrical means for indicating or recording the detected pressure. They are
combinations of mechanical bellows, metallic diaphragms, or bourdon tubes with electrical
sensing, indicating, recording, or transmitting devices employing pressure transducers, inductive
transducers, and oscillating transducers.

Pressure Transducers
Pressure and Vacuum Measurements
McLeod Gage - is a mercury Gage for the measurement of absolute pressure. It is one of the
most basic type and has a measurement range from 2 vm to mmHg. There are three types of
McLeod gages. The swivel McLeod gage has an accuracy of 3% of reading or mm of scale
reading. The standard tilt high precision McLeod gage has been modified to simplify its
operations, use less mercury, be more rugged and compact, and still retain its precision. The
newer modified gage is known as the adjustable closed and improved McLeod gage.
Pressure and Vacuum Measurements
The Pirani Gage - is a hot wire vacuum gage. This gage employs a wheatsone bridge circuit to
balance the resistance of a tungsten filament or resistor sealed off in a high vacuum against that
or a tungsten filament which can lose heat by conduction to the gas whose pressure is being
measured.
Pressure and Vacuum Measurements
Knudsen Type Vacuum Gage - operates on the principle of heated gases rebounding from a
heated surface and bombarding a cooled movable surface (vane) spaced less than a mean free
path length from the heated surface. The gas particles rebound from the cool vane with less
energy than from the heated vane which tends to rotate the cool vane away from the heated
vane within the restriction of a suspension system designed to carry a galvanometer mirror for
producing a reading on a fixed scale.
Thermometry and
Pyrometry
Thermometry and Pyrometry
Indicating and Recording Thermometer - pressure-actuated instrument that uses the energy
available in the form of increased pressure or volume a substance to indicate and record the
change in temperature that liberated this energy.
Proper location of an indicating and recording
thermometer
a. The thermometer bulb shall be located in such a way as to permit the recorder to be removed
for repair.
b. The recorder shall have enough tubing to permit the bulb to reach a convenient location for
the test bath.
c. The thermometer tubing shall be properly fastened and out of the way of damage from
operators, mechanics, and pipe fitters who may have occasion to work near the installation.
d. The angle of the tube at the neck of the bulb shall be protected.
e. The tubing shall never be in contact with hot steam pipes or stacks which would increase the
chance of ambient-temperature errors.
f. The location of bimetallic recording thermometers shall be carefully checked for dirt and dust
in the air.
Types of Temperature-measuring
Instruments:
Thermocouple pyrometers - in which Resistance thermometers - in which the
the voltage, generated at the junction of resistance of a calibrated wire changes with
two dissimilar metal wire indicates the the temperature, the resistance change being
degree of temperature, the voltage at proportional to the increase in temperature.
the junction increasing proportionally
with the temperature.
Types of Temperature-measuring
Instruments:
Bourdon tube thermometers which operate
by the expansion of a fluid (liquid or gas) as
follows –
1. expansion of liquid that completely fills the
enclosed tubing and bulb of the instrument,
2. expansions of the liquid in the bulb of the
instrument,
3. expansion of a gas that completely fills the
tubing and bulb of the instrument.
Types of Temperature-measuring
Instruments:
Pyrometer cones - by which the temperature Bimetallic thermometers depend on the
is determined by the bending over of a differential expansion of two solids, the
graded set of ceramic cones, each having a differential expansion being proportional to
definite heat resisting value. the increase in temperature.
Types of Temperature-measuring
Instruments:
Electronic thermometers - the latest
breakthrough in the measurements of
temperature with very high accuracies, fast
speed of response and above average
linearity.
Flow Metering
Classification on flow meters
Inferential type - The inferential type of meters obtains a measurement of the flow of a fluid or gas
not by measuring the volume or weight of the medium but by measuring some other phenomenon
that is a function of the quantity of fluid passing through the pipe.
1. The differential-pressure meters
a. Venturi-tube type
b. Flow-nozzle type
b. Orifice-plate type
c. Pitot-tube type
2. Area meters/Rotameters
A rotameter consists of a tapered glass tube set vertically in the fluid or gaseous piping system with its large
and a top and a metering float which is free to move vertically in the tapered glass tube. The floe through a
rotameter is based on a variable orifice with a constant-pressure differential, the indication of flow being
obtained from the measurements of the orifice obtained by noting the position of the float on the tapered
tube.
Classification on flow meters
3. Anemometers
Anemometers are instruments for measuring the flow of gas or air consists of a set rotating
vanes placed at an angle of about 45 degrees to the axis flow and free to rotate about an axis set
in jeweled bearings. The rotating shaft in turn operates a counting mechanism which registers
the number of revolution of the vanes. The velocity of the air flow is obtained by timing the
rotation of the vanes for a certain definite period and noting the number of revolutions made
during this time. In determining the quantities of air flow, it is necessary to determine not only
the velocity but also the readings of pressure, temperature, and pipe area. The deflecting-vane
type of anemometers indicates air velocity directly on a dial without timing and far sensitive to
low-velocity flows.
Classification on flow meters
3. Electrical Air Conductance Meters
By utilizing the ability of gas to conduct heat from a wire or grid heated electrically it is possible
to obtain a quantitive measurement of a gas flowing through a pipeline or air duct. Since the
ability of a gas to conduct heat will vary with the velocity, this fact can be used to determine the
rate and quantity of flow through the pipe. Two methods are use to determine flow by
conductance - the hot wire anemometers which consists of a small resistance wire inserted in
the steam of gas whose velocity is to be measured, and the Thomas meter which consists of
wire grid inserted in the pipe line or duct and supplied with a current of sufficient magnitude to
heat the air passing through the pipe.
Classification on flow meters
Volumetric and Current types
1. Piston-Type Volumetric Flow Meter - used to inject an exact amount of fluid into flow line or a
collecting vessel. The piston pump is generally a reciprocating type, which means that a piston or
plungers delivers a fixed volume on each stroke used to deliver controlled volumes at a very high
pressure.
Examples:
a. Nutating-Disc Pump - positive displacement flowmeter wherein the piston is the only moving part on
the measuring chamber.
b. Rotary Sliding-Vane Flowmeter - volumetric meter constructed similarly to the standard vane type of
vacuum pump, wherein the design requires that the meter body be in the shape of a closed drum with
shaft carrying a smaller cylinder arranged to rotate inside the meter body.
c. Bellows-Type Gas Flowmeter - designed primarily and exclusively for gas-receiving bellows having metal
slides and tanned sheepskin flexible connections between the metal slides.
Measurement of Weight
Weight is a primary method of measuring force and volumetric
devices are calibrated initially by weighing. Scales have been
constructed to weigh a million kilograms or more, while the chemical
balance, at the opposite extreme will easily weigh a millionth of a
kilogram.
Platform Scale
The common Platform Scale used in the laboratory consists of a compound leverage system. A
series of standard weights hung on one end of the leverage system serves to balance an
unknown weight at the other end of the system. Knife-edge fulcrums are ordinarily used,
although torsion bands or flexure plate are introduced in large scales to eliminate friction.
Pendulum Scale
Pendulum Scales give automatic indication on over a wide range and are extensively used when
speed is important. This type of scale is also a weight balance, but the weights are mounted on
bent levers, and the movement of these pendulum levers are magnified and transmitted to
pointers that swing in a full circle. The effective lengths of the two arms of the pendulum lever
are constantly changing; hence to secure uniformly divided scale dials, a cam must be
interposed between pendulum and pointer. Some form of damping mechanism such as a fluid
dashpot is used with pendulum scales because of their high sensitiveness.
Electrical Scales
Electrical Scales are combinations of mechanical elements and electrical measuring devices.
Weighing can also be accomplished by supporting the load on hydraulic pistons, diaphragms, or
bellows units and measuring the resulting hydraulic pressure with any convenient pressure gage.
Rotational Speed
Measurements
Counter and Timer
a common type of revolution counter wherein the rubber of steel tip is applied directly to the
shaft center and friction is relied upon to drive the spindle. Since the counter is a direct reading
revolution counter, the starting and stopping errors are the chief inaccuracies in speed
measurements. The speed indicators averages the speed over a short period of time and
indicates directly the speed in rpm. A single button winds and starts the watch, connects the
drive shaft to the counting after a definite period of time. With the chronometric tachometer,
the operator presses a button to start the timing mechanism, but the disengagement and speed
indication are automatic, and the duration of the reading is only one (1) second. The I-second
reading are automatically repeated by the instruments as long as the counting and timing
mechanism are engaged.
Tachometer
Tachometer gives a direct and continuous indications of speed and is therefore the most
convenient for observing speed variation or fluctuations and for general observations in which a
high degree of accuracy is unnecessary. It is made to record and applied to such machines as
turbogenerators, conveyors, paper machines and gas engines for purposes of control and record
of performance. The electric tachometers are made in wide variety and have the advantage of
distant location, consistent accuracy and ease of adaptations to recording and integrating.
Stroboscope
Stroboscope utilizes the phenomenon of persistence of vision when an object is viewed
intermittently. This is used for speed measurement with indicating dials calibrated throughout
the range 700 to 14 000 rpm and especially valuable where it is inconvenient to make a
connection or contact with the rotating shaft or for light powered machinery where the load to
drive speed measuring instruments affect the operation of the machine.
Environmental and
Pollution Measurements
Humidity Meter - instrument to measure the relative humidity of the atmospheric air which is
important as comfort factor and is measurable of how many airborne particulates are held in
suspension where we can take them into our lungs as we breathe.
Hygrometer/Psychrometer - instrument to measure also the relative humidity of the
environment, which utilizes the physical or electrical change of certain materials as they
absorbed moisture. It registers the temperature difference between two primary elements, on e
of which is kept wet so that water is continuously being evaporated from its surface.
Hygrometers that depend on physical changes employ human hair, animal membrane, or other
materials that lengthen when it absorb water.