Chapter Two

Sensors and Application

Dept. of Electrical and Computer Eng.
AASTU
Addis Ababa
By Biruk T.

1
2
 2.1 Introduction
•Sensing element, the first block diagram represented in the functional block diagram
of measurement system, is the basic and main building blocks of a measurement system.
•Sensor is defined as a component, device or equipment that detects variation of input
or physical phenomenon and responds (or provides) equivalent electrical or it may non
electrical quantity corresponding to it.
•Often a term transducer is also used for sensing element;
•literally Transducer is defined as a device that transforms one form or type of
energy into another.
• Example: a microphone, a photoelectric cell, an automobile horn, or bulb.
• Sensor is a transducer but transducer is more than a sensor, if it is used for sensing
application both terms are used interchangeably. 3
• Advantages of using sensors include
1. Mechanical effects such as friction is reduced to the minimum
possibility
2. Very small power is required for controlling the electrical system
3. The electrical output can be amplified to any desired level
4. The electrical output can be detected and recorded remotely at a
distance from the sensing medium and use modern digital
computers

4
Use of Sensors
1. Information gathering: Provide data for display purpose
• This gives an understanding of the current status of the system parameters
• Example: Car speed sensor and speedometer, which records the speed of a
car against time

2. System control: Signal from the sensor is an input to a controller

System
Controller under
Desires signal control Output signal

Sensor

5
 Sensor Requirements
· The main function of a sensor is to respond only for the measurement under
specified limits for which it is designed

· Sensors should meet the following basic requirements

1. Ruggedness: Capable of withstanding overload
· Some safety arrangements should be provided for overload protection
2. Linearity: Its input-output characteristics must be linear
3. Repeatability: It should reproduce the same output signal when the same
input is applied again and again
4. High output signal quality
5. High reliability and stability
6. Good dynamic response
7. No hysteresis, …
6
  2.2 Classification of sensors
 capacitive sensors
•The study of sensors is important, so as to
1. The source of energy the used to provide
understand the basic principle operation of
an output as
measuring instruments
active sensors and
analyze, design and identify measuring
passive sensors
instruments
3. The physical quantity they convert as
Sensors are used to detect physical quantities
displacement sensor
or variables of multidiscipline.  temperature sensor,
Hence there are different ways of classifying speed sensor,
sensors. pressure sensor e.t.c

The classification of sensors used is based on

7
1. The physical effect employed as
• On other hand classification of sensors is given by
• Primary and secondary sensors
• Active and passive sensors
• Analog and Digital sensors

8
Primary and Secondary Sensors

• Classification is based on the method of application

• Primary sensor
• The input NEQ is directly sensed by the sensor
• The physical phenomenon is converted into another NEQ

• Secondary sensor
• The output of the primary sensor is fed to another (secondary) sensor that
converts the NEQ to EQ
NEQ NEQ EQ
Load Strain-
cell gauge
Primary Secondary
sensor sensor
Weight Displacement Resistance
(Force F) d R

9
Active and Passive Sensor
• Classification based on the basis of energy conversion

• Active sensor
• Generates voltage/current in response to NEQ variation
• Are also called self-generating sensors
• Normally, the output of active sensors is in V or mV
• Examples
• Thermocouples: A change in temperature produces output voltage
• Photovoltaic cell: Change solar energy into voltage
• Hall-effect sensors, …

NEQ EQ
Active
Ex. Temperature sensors Voltage or current

10
 Active and Passive ….

• Passive sensors
• Sensors that does not generate voltage or current, but produce
element variation in R, L, or C
• Need an additional circuit to produce voltage or current variation
• Examples
• Thermistor: Change in temperature leads to change in resistance
• Photo resistor: Change in light leads to change in resistance
• Strain gauge: Change in length or position into change in resistance)
• LVDT, Mic

NEQ R, L, C

Passive
sensors

11
 Analog and Digital Sensors

·Classification based on the nature of the output signal

·Analog sensor
· Gives an output that varies continuously as the input changes
· Output can have infinite number of values within the sensor’s range
·Digital sensor
· Has an output that varies in discrete steps or pulses or sampled form and so can
have a finite number of values
· E.g., Revolution counter: A cam, attached to a revolving body whose motion is
being measured, opens and closes a switch
· The switching operations are counted by an electronic counter

12
 Based On the Physical Effect Employed
•When a physical effect employed on the sensing element causes change
in any of the physical parameter (quantity) .
•For example: A strain gauge is a sensor that when subjected to force or
pressure its resistance changes
•The very common variations of electrical quantities from sensing elements
when subjected to physical effect are
1. Variation in resistance
2. Variation in inductance
3. Variation in capacitance 13
 Variation in resistance

•Resistance is the character or ability of an element to oppose the flow of

current. Often the resistance of an element is given in either of formula;
  𝜌𝑙
𝑅= =𝑅 ( 𝜌 , 𝑙 , 𝐴)
𝐴
• Where ᵨ is resistivity, l is length and A is cross-sectional area
 )
is the temperature coefficient of resistance

14
Resistive Sensors – Temperature Dependent Resistors
• Two classes of thermal resistors are
• Metallic element
• Semiconductor
• For most metals, the resistance increases with increase in
temperature

R (T )  R0 [1  1T   2T 2  ...]  R0 [1  T ]
• Where  is the temperature coefficient of resistance and given as
1 R
 
T R0
• Example: Platinum
• Has a linear temperature-resistance characteristics
• Reproducible over a wide range of temperature
• Platinum Thermometers are used for temperature measurement

15
Resistive Sensors – Temperature
Dependent…
• Semiconductor based resistance thermometers elements
• The resistance of such elements decreases with increasing temperature
• Example: Thermistor
• The resistance-temperature relationship is non-linear and governed by
1 1
(  )
R (T )  R0 e T T0
; T0  3000 K
• Where
• R0 is the resistance at absolute temp (in Kelvin) and
•  is material constant expressed in degree Kelvin

• Most semiconductor materials used for thermometry possess high resistivity and
high negative temperature coefficients
16
Resistive Sensors – Temperature
Dependent…
• The temperature coefficient of resistance is

1 R 
   2
T R0 T

•  is typically 4000 k and for T = 300k,

 4000
    0.044
T2 300 2

17
•Apparently a mathematical relation can established between the physical effect
and the resistance.
•Some of the very common sensors which work based up on this principle are:
Potentiometer; for linear and angular displacement measurement,
Resistance thermometer( resistance temperature detectors( RTD),
Thermistor; for temperature measurement
Strain gauge; for stress measurement such as; pressure ,force ,torque
Photoresistor (photoconductor) , for light intensity measurement

18
 Potentiometer
• A resistive potentiometer is a resistance wire wound on a former provided with a sliding
contact and excited by dc or ac voltage source.
• The movement of the slider can be translational, rotational or combination of these two.
• They are the most commonly used type of sensor mainly for linear and angular
displacement measurement

Figure potentiometer for (a) linear displacement and (b) angular

Displacement measurement 19
20
• Linear displacement angular displacement
  𝑉 𝑖𝑛 . 𝑋 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 . 𝜃0
𝑉 0=  
𝑉 0=
𝐿 𝜃
𝑉  0 =𝐾 . 𝑋
  𝑉0
𝑉 0 =𝐾 𝜃0
 

𝑋= 𝑉0
𝜃  0 =
𝐾 𝐾

Where x and  0 are linear and angular displacement, and K is the sensitivity
The sensitivity is the rate of output voltage per input displacement and is given by
Vin . V0
K 
L X
• The resolution of a potentiometer is the smallest change in displacement
that can be measured or identified.
• If the excitation is fixed then it is the smallest change in resistance that can
be identified by slider movement
21
To measure physical parameters using a potentiometer, there are important
factors that need to be considered in designing or functioning of the instrument.
These are;
Heat dissipating capacity: The maximum input voltage is limited on account
of potentiometer heat dissipating capacity and is give by;
Vin  PRT , where RT = Total Resistance of the potentiometer, P= Power
rating of a resistor (P= 5W at 200c)

The loading effect: Potentiometers are linear devices how ever their linearity
is affected by loading effect thus a care must be taken to avoid a loading effect
due to internal resistance of next stage elements such as; measuring
instrument like voltmeter(if used to measure the output voltage).
The resolution and sensitivity.
22
• 
•Example: Consider the Linear displacement measurement circuit of fig above with
input voltage of 5-volt the output voltage is 2.5-volt. The total resistance element
length is 100mm. The Linear displacement of an object causes the sliding contact to
move such that the output voltage 2.65-volt. Determine the displacement of the object
and the direction to which it moves.
• Solution
• Given Vo=2.5,Vin=5 and L=100mm, the displacement X can be obtained from the eqn
• Vo=

If the output is now 2.65,

X==53mm
The sensitivity K is given by 23
 Resistance thermometer

•Resistance thermometers are temperature dependent resistors made from a

conductive or semiconductor element.
•Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) and
thermistor are the most common transducers that vary
their resistance when subjected to temperature variation.
(a) Resistance-temperature detector (RTD) RTD PT100 Temperature Sensor

• Resistance-temperature detector is a temperature sensing device whose resistance

increases with temperature, also referred as positive temperature co-efficient
(PTC).
• As they are almost invariably made of platinum, they are often called platinum
resistance thermometers (PRTs). 24
•  Platinum RTD has a nominal resistance of 100 Ω at

•The mathematical relation between the resistance and temperature of

Resistance temperature detectors (RTD) is given by:

•
25
 Measurement using RTD

Measurement using RTD has to consider the following

factors to over come inaccuracy

Since RTD is a passive resistive device, a current is
required to pass through the device to produce a measurable voltage.
This current causes the RTD to heat internally and hence causes as an error,
this heating is called as self heating.

Lead wire resistance can also be a factor because RTDs are low-resistance
devices, care must be taken in wiring and measuring RTDs to avoid errors
caused by lead resistance

Mechanical strain on the resistance thermometer can also cause inaccuracy 26

• 
Resistance thermometers are constructed in a number of forms and offer greater stability,
accuracy and repeatability advantages and limitations

•Advantages of platinum resistance thermometers:

High accuracy
Low drift
Wide operating range
Suitable for precision applications

•Limitations:
RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660
Compared to thermistors, platinum RTDs are less sensitive to small temperature changes and
have a slower response time. However, thermistors have a smaller temperature range and
stability. 27
 Thermistor
• 
•A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies

significantly (more than in standard resistors) with temperature.

Thermistors are widely used as
• inrush current limiters,

• temperature sensors,

•self-resetting over current protectors

• self-regulating heating elements.

• Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTD) in that the material used in a
thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs use pure metals.
• The temperature response is also different;
RTDs are useful over larger temperature ranges,
while thermistors typically achieve a higher precision within a limited temperature range
[usually -90 to 130 28
• 
•The resistance RT of a thermistor at a temperature (T) can be expressed
by the equation:

where a, β and k are constants of the material

•Depending on the sign of k thermistors are classified into two types.

•The resistance of these elements decreases
with temperature – in other words there is
a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) –
in a highly non-linear way

29
 •Thermistors with positive temperature coefficients (P.T.C.) are also
available;
•Resistors that are not thermistors are designed to have a k as close to
zero as possible (smallest possible k), so that their resistance remains nearly
constant over a wide temperature range.

Figure . Thermistor resistance-temperature characteristic and types

30
 Application of thermistors
• PTC thermistors can be used as
• current-limiting devices for circuit protection, as replacements for fuses.
• timers in the degaussing coil circuit of CRT displays and televisions.
 NTC thermistors are used as
 resistance thermometers in low-temperature measurements of the order of 10 K.
 inrush-current limiting devices in power supply circuits.
 automotive applications. For example, they monitor things like coolant temperature
and/or oil temperature inside the engine and provide data to the dashboard.
 monitor temperature of an incubator.
 modern digital thermostats and to monitor the temperature of battery packs while
charging. 31
•  Example: a platinum resistance thermometer (RTD) has a resistance of
100ῼ at and its temperature coefficient of resistance at is .
a. find the resistance at
b. if the thermometer has a resistance of 150ῼ, find the temperature?
Solution:
(- ῼ

32
 Resistive Sensors – Strain Gauges
•Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied force. More
specifically, strain (ε) is defined as the fractional change in length,
•A strain gauge takes advantage of the physical property of
electrical conductance and its dependence on not merely the electrical conductivity
of a conductor, which is a property of its material, but also the conductor's geometry.
•When an electrical conductor is stretched within the limits of its elasticity such
that it does not break or permanently deform, it will become narrower and longer,
changes that increase its electrical resistance end-to-end.
• Conversely, when a conductor is compressed such that it does not buckle, it will
broaden and shorten changes that decrease its electrical resistance end-to-end. 33
 Figure :Stress and strain:
(a) Effect of tensile stress (b) Effect of compressive strain

34
•Cont.….
 

Strain gauge
•A fundamental parameter of the strain gauge is its sensitivity to strain,
expressed quantitatively as the gauge factor (GF).
•Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of fractional change in electrical
resistance to the fractional change in length (strain):

35
Cont.….
• Is a secondary transducer that senses tensile or compressive
strain in a particular direction at a point on the surface of a
body or structure
• Used to measure force, pressure, displacement
R  R (e)
• Where e=l/l is the strain
• The resistance of an unstrained conductor is given as
l
R
A

• Under strained condition, resistance of conductor changes by

R because of l, A, and/or 

36
Cont.…

·To find the change in resistance R,

R R R
R  l  A  
l A 
 l l
 l  2 A  
A A A
·Dividing both sides by R, we get the fractional change as
R l A 
  
R l A 

·Let us define el = l/l as the longitudinal stain and eT as the

transversal strain
·Also assume that eT = -el ,where  is the Poisson’s Ratio
37
Cont.…
• Then, Gauge Factor, G is defined as
R/R R/R
G 
l / l eL

• G is also known as Strain-Sensitivity factor; rearranging

terms, we get
/
G  (1  2 ) 
eL
/
• Where eL is the Piezoresistive term

• For most metals, the Piezoresistive term is about 0.4 and

0.2 <  < 0.5
• Thus, Gauge factor for metallic stain gauges is in the range 2.0–2.5
(not sensitive)
38
Cont.…
• Sensitive measurements require very high Gauge factors in the range
of 100-300
• Such factor can be obtained from semiconductor strain gauges
• Due to the significant contribution from the Piezoresistive term

39
 Thank
you
For your
Attention!!!
40
 Photoresistors / Photoconductors
•Photoresistor, light dependent resistor (LDR) or cadmium sulfide (CdS) cell is
a resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity.

•It is also referred to as a photoconductor. Often it is made of a high resistance

semiconductor.

•If light falling on the device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed
by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the
conduction band.

• The resulting free electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby
lowering resistance. 41
Cont.…..

resistance Vs illumination graph of photoresistor

•Photoresistors are available in many different types. Inexpensive
cadmium sulfide cells can be found in many consumer items such as
•Camera Light Meters
•Street Lights
•Clock Radios
•Alarms
•Outdoor Clocks….
• They are also used in some dynamic compressors together with a small
incandescent lamp or light emitting diode to control gain reduction. 42
Cont.…..
• Are light sensitive resistors with non-linear negative temperature
coefficient
• Photoconductors have resistance variation that depends on
illumination
• The resistance illumination characteristics is given by
R  RD e   E

• Where RD is Dark Resistance and E is illumination level in Lux

• When light strikes the semiconductor material, there is a decrease in
the resistance resulting in an increase in the current indicated by the
meter

43
Cont.…..
• A voltage is impressed on the semiconductor material
• They enjoy a wide range of applications and are useful for
measurement of radiation at all levels
• Photoconductors are used in
• Cameras, light sensors in spectrophotometer
• Counting systems where an object interrupts a light beam
hitting the photoconductor, etc.
• The schematic diagram of this device is shown below

44
 Photovoltaic Cells
• When light strikes the barrier between the transparent metal layer and the
semiconductor material, a voltage is generated
• The output of the device is strongly dependent on the load resistance R
• The most widely used applications is the light exposure meter in photographic
work

Schematic of a photovoltaic cell.

45
 Variation in Capacitance
•Capacitance is the ability of an element to store electric charges in its electric
field.
•Basically there are two capacitor models;
𝜀 𝐴
the parallel plate and coaxial cable
 𝐶 = 0
• Parallel plate 𝑑

• Coaxial cable  , a is inner and b is outer

diameter of the plat

• A change in the parameters expressing the capacitors due

to any physical effect employed will cause a change in capacitance.
• The parallel plate capacitor is used to measure some physical parameters such as
• displacement
• density of some materials
46
Capacitive Transducers
• The parallel plate capacitance is given by
• d= distance between plates
A • A=overlapping area
C   0 r
d • 0 = 8.85x10-12 F/m is the absolute permittivity,
• r = dielectric constant (r =1 for air and r =3 for
plastics)

· Displacement measurement
can be achieved by varying
·d
· overlapping area A
Schematic of a capacitive transducer.
· the dielectric constant r

47
Capacitive Transducers – Liquid Level Measurement
• A simple application of such a
transducer is for liquid
measurement

• The dielectric constant changes

between the electrodes as long as
there is a change in the level of the
liquid

Capacitive transducer for liquid level

measurement.
48
 Capacitive sensors – Pressure Sensor

• Use electrical property of a capacitor to measure the

displacement
• Diaphragm: elastic pressure senor displaced in proportion to
change in pressure
• Acts as a plate of a capacitor

49
Capacitive Sensor – Proximity Switch
• A capacitive sensor functions like a typical capacitor.

• The metal plate in the end of the sensor electrically connects to the
oscillator, and the object to be sensed acts as the second plate.

• When this sensor receives power, the oscillator detects the external
capacitance between the target and the internal sensor plate.

50
Capacitive Sensor – Proximity Switch

• This arrangement completes the circuit and provides the necessary feedback path for the
output circuit to evaluate.

C2

C1 P

C3

• Capacitance increases as any object (P) gets closer because additional capacitance paths
C2 & C3 are added and increase in value as the separation reduces. C1 is always present.

51
Capacitive Sensor – Proximity Switch

52
Capacitive Transducers - Linear Displacement

• Variable area capacitance displacement transducer

Where:
• ra=inner cylinder radius
• rb=outer cylinder radius
• L=length of the cylinder

53
54
•Capacitive displacement sensors “are non-contact devices capable of high-resolution measurement
of the position and/or change of position of any conductive target”.
• They are also able to measure the thickness or density of non-conductive materials. Capacitive
displacement sensors are used in a wide variety of applications including;
semiconductor processing
assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives
 precision thickness measurements
 machine tool metrology
 assembly line testing. 55
 Variation of inductance
•  Inductance is the ability of an element to store electric energy in its magnetic
filed.
• The inductance of a coil winding with n number of turn in a material of
permeability is given by:   𝑛2 𝑛2
• n: Number of turns of the coil 𝐿=𝜇 𝐴 =
𝑙 𝑅
• l: Mean length of the magnetic path
• A: Area of the magnetic path
• : Permeability of the magnetic material
• R: Magnetic reluctance of the circuit
• Inductance force sensor, torque sensor, Inductance displacement sensor e.t.c
• Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

56
Inductance displacement sensor, force sensor

Figure: inductance displacement sensors 57

 Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
• LVDT is the most commonly used sensor for displacement measurement
applications.
• It is a transformer consisting a single primary winding and two secondary
windings wound on a tubular ferromagnetic former.
• The secondary winding is connected in such a way that the output is the
difference of them. With the core moving V1 and V2 change with core position X.
The output voltage and the displacement have a linear relationship.
• An iron core slides within the tube and therefore affects the magnetic coupling
between the primary and the two secondary.
• When the core is in the center, the voltage induced in the two secondary winding
is equal.
• When the core is moved in one direction from center, the voltage induced in one
winding increase and that in the other is decreased..
58
 Figure : the linear variable differential transformer (a) Construction
(b) Schematic diagram (c) Output voltage vs displacement
•Another One advantage of the LVDT over the inductive bridge-type transducer is that it
produces higher output voltage for small changes in core position.
• LVDT are commonly used for position feedback in servomechanisms, and for automated
measurement in machine tools and many other industrial and scientific applications.
• The frequency is usually in the range 1 to 10 KHZ. 59
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
·Input voltage (alternating current): One primary coil
· There will be a magnetic coupling between the core and the coils
·Output voltage: Two secondary coils connected in series
· Operates using the principle of variation of mutual inductance

· The output voltage is a

function of the core’s
displacement
· Widely used for translating
linear motion into an
electrical signal

Schematic diagram of a differential transformer

60
LVDT - Output Characteristics

Output characteristics of an LVDT

61
LVDT – Applications
• Used to Measure
• linear mechanical displacement
• Provides resolution about 0.05mm, operating range from  0.1mm to
 300 mm, accuracy of  0.5% of full-scale reading
• The input ac excitation of LVDT can range in frequency from 50 Hz to
20kHz
• position in control systems and precision manufacturing
• Force
• Pressure
• Acceleration, etc..
62
Inductive Sensors –proximity switch
• Coil inductance increases as iron / steel object (S ) gets closer,
because lines of magnetic flux can flow through the iron, making the
effective path shorter.

Inductive proximity sensor

63
 Inductive sensor-proximity switch

• An inductive proximity sensor has four components;

• The coil, oscillator, detection circuit and output circuit.
• The oscillator generates a fluctuating magnetic field the shape of a
doughnut around the winding of the coil that locates in the device’s
sensing face.

• When a metal object moves into the inductive proximity sensor’s field
of detection, Eddy circuits build up in the metallic object, magnetically
push back, and finally reduce the Inductive sensor’s own oscillation
field.

64
LVDT – Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
• LVDT can be combined
with a Bourdon tube
• LVDT converts
displacement into an
electrical signal
• The signal can be
displayed on an
electrical device
calibrated in terms of
pressure

65
LVDT and Bellow Combination

• Bellows produce small displacement

• Amplified by LVDT and potentiometer

66
 Based the energy they used to provide an output
•  Sensors or transducers are also classified as active or passive sensors based on the
energy they use as passive and active sensor
Passive sensors
• Passive sensors are those sensors which consume or require electrical energy
to provide an output Example: e.t.c so far discussed sensors
Active sensors
• Active sensors are those which don’t consume rather provide electrical energy
corresponding to input
Thermoelectric (Thermocouple) V(T) temp
Solar cells (photovoltaic cells) I(E) illumination
Piezoelectric crystals ---- I(F), I(P) or V(P)

67
 Thermoelectric (Thermocouple)
• Thermoelectricity is the relationship between the temperature of a substance and electrical
energy.
• If two different dissimilar metals A and B are joined together and, subjected to temperatures
at their junction, there is a potential difference in electrical potential across the junction
called the contact potential and vice versa
• Thermoelectric principles
Change in temp lead to voltage generation
Application of voltage leads to change in temp
• The generation of voltage is by see back effect: when any conductor is subjected to a
thermal gradient, it will generate a voltage.
• This is now known as the thermoelectric effect or see back effect.
• That difference increases with temperature, and is between 1 and 70 microvolt per degree
Celsius (µV/°C) for standard metal combinations.
• The voltage is not generated at the junction of the two metals of the thermocouple but rather
along that portion of the length of the two dissimilar metals that is subjected to a
temperature gradient. 68
•  The voltage generated is non linear and is given as a power series of the form
• , Where a, a2… an constants of the metals
• Thermocouple is closed circuits consisting of two dissimilar metals joined at
two ends, and generate a voltage as function of junction temperatures (T1 and
T2).

Figure : J-Type Thermocouple 69

•Thermocouple is one of the most frequently used temperature transducers which are
very rugged, inexpensive, providing accurate measurement over a wide temperature
ranges.
•Often they generate a very low voltage, but they can also connected in series to form
the so called thermopile.
•They are widely used for temperature measurement ranging from home, hospitals to
industry, in the ranges from -3000C to 20000C.
Some of their applications are
in industries, such as furnace, measuring temperature of liquid metals and even in
nuclear reactors,
in medical applications such as monitoring internal temperature during operation,
To monitor or record temperature with data acquisition systems or data loggers 70
 Thermocouple laws
• To ensure proper installation and measurement often it is necessary to consider the
laws governing thermocouples
•Law 1: Law of homogeneous material
Temperature changes in the wiring between the input and output do not affect the
output voltage, provided all wires are made of the same materials as the
thermocouple.
The voltage generated is function of junction temperature T1 and T2 and
independent of the temperatures of the wires connecting the junction.

71
Law 2: Law of intermediate materials
• If a third metal is inserted in between, provided that the temperature of the introduced metal is
the same, emf generated is the same.

Law 3: when a third metal is introduced at the junction provided that the junction temperature of
the introduced metal is the same emf generated is the same.

Law 4: Law of intermediate metal

• The emf generated by two dissimilar homogeneous materials AB at junctions temprature T1
and T2 is equal to the sum of emf generated by a third metal introdcued AC and CB at the same
junction temprature pf T1 and T2

Law 5:Law of successive or intermediate temperatures

72
 Measuring temperature with thermocouples
Thermocouples generate low-voltage signals, typically in the millivolt range. For
example, a J-type thermocouple outputs –8.1 mV at –210° C and 21.8 mV at 400°
C. Therefore, you must amplify the signal to accurately read and digitize it.
When using thermocouples, you should be aware of several measurement issues
such as the following:
Cold-junction compensation
Nonlinear data
Low-voltage signals
Noisy signals
73
 Active Sensors - Thermocouple
• Thermoelectric transducers provide electrical signal in response to change in
temperature
• Example: Thermocouple
• Thermocouple: Converts thermal energy into electrical energy
• Application: To measure temperature
• Contains a pair of dissimilar metal wires joined together at one end
(sensing or hot junction) and terminated at the other end (reference
or cold junction)

• When a temperature difference exists b/n the sensing junction and

the reference, an emf is produced
Induced emf  E   (T1  T2 )   (T12  T22 )  ....   (T1  T2 )

74
Active Sensors – Thermocouple …
• Typical material combinations used as thermocouples

Type Materials Temp. Range Output voltage

(mV)
T Copper-Constantan -2000C to 3500C -5.6 to 17.82
J Iron-Constantan 0 to 7500C 0 to 42.28
E Chromel-Constantan -200 to 9000C -8.82 to 68.78
K Chromel-Alumel -200 to 12500C -5.97 to 50.63
R Platinum = 13% 0 to 14500C 0 to 16.74
Rhodium = 87%

• To get higher output emf

• Connect two or more Thermocouples in series
• For measurement of average temperature
• Connect Thermocouples in parallel

75
 Active Sensors – Thermocouple Meter
• The measured a.c. voltage signal is applied to a
heater element
• A thermocouple senses the temperature of the
heater due to heat generated (I 2 )
rms
• The d.c. voltage generated in the thermocouple is
applied to a moving-coil meter
• The thermocouple will be calibrated to read
current (Irms)
• AC with frequencies up to 100 MHz may be
measured with thermocouple meters
• One may also measure high frequency current by
first rectifying the signal to DC and then
measuring the DC Schematic of a
thermocouple meter.

76
• Applications
• Temperature measurement
• Voltage measurement
• Rectifier based rms indications are waveform dependent
• They are normally designed for sinusoidal signals
• Hence, error for non-sinusoidal signals
• Use thermocouple based voltmeters
• Here, temperature of a hot junction is proportional to the true rms value of
the current

77
 Solar cells or photovoltaic cells
•Solar cells are semiconductor devices which produce electric energy
when illuminated; usually silicon element is used as solar cell.
• Often DC Voltage is generated that is proportional to the incident light.
Photovoltaic cells are used for
•production of electrical energy and
•as sensing elements they are also used for sensing light intensity

78
Photoelectric Transducers

·Versatile tools for detecting radiant energy or light

· Are extensively used in instrumentation
·Most known photosensitive devices include

1. Photovoltaic cells
· Semiconductor junction devices used to convert radiation energy into
electrical energy

79
 Photoelectric Transducers …
2. Photo diode
· A diode that is normally reverse-biased=> Current is very low
· When a photon is absorbed, electrons are freed so current starts to flow, i.e., the diode is
forward biased
· Has an opening in its case containing a lens which focuses incident light on the PN
junction

3. Photo transistor
· Also operate in reverse-biased
· Responds to light intensity on its lens instead of base current
80
Photo transistor

81
 Piezo electric sensors
•Piezoelectric crystals are special materials which produce charge distribution
when they are subjected to an external pressure or force. The effect is reversible
i.e when a charge is applied they are deformed. This phenomenon is known as
piezo electric effect.
• “Piezo” is a Greek word meaning for or pressure. The mechanical deformation
producing electric charge is basis of many instruments for measuring
acceleration, force and torque.

82
Piezoelectric Transducers
• Convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
• If any crystal is subject to an external force F, there will be displacement x
• This displacement is related to the applied force in exactly the same way as elastic
sensor such as spring

• Asymmetric crystalline material such as Quartz, Rochelle Salt and Barium Tantalite
produce an emf when they are placed under stress

• An externally force, entering the sensor through its pressure port, applies pressure to
the top of a crystal
• This produces an emf across the crystal proportional to the magnitude of the applied
pressure
83
 Piezoelelectric Transducers
• A piezoelectric crystal is placed between two plate electrodes
• Application of force on such a plate will develop a stress and a
corresponding deformation
· With certain crystals, this deformation
will produce a potential difference at
the surface of the crystal
· This effect is called piezoelectric
effect The piezoelectric effect

84
Piezoelectric Transducers …
• Induced charge is proportional to the impressed force
Q=dF
• d= charge sensitivity (C/m2)/(N/m2) = proportionality constant
• Output voltage E= g t P
• t= crystal thickness
• P = impressed pressure
• g=voltage sensitivity (V/m)/(N/m2)
• Shear stress can also produce piezoelectric effect
• Widely used as inexpensive pressure transducers for dynamic
measurements

85
Piezoelectric Transducers ….
• Piezoelectric sensors have good frequency response
• Example: Accelerometer

Piezoelectric accelerometer
86
Piezoelectric Transducers …

• Example: Pressure Sensors

• Detect pressure changes by the
displacement of a thin metal or
semiconductor diaphragm
• A pressure applied on the
diaphragm causes a strain on the
piezoelectric crystal
• The crystal generates voltage at the
output
• This voltage is proportional to the
applied pressure

87
 Hall-effect Transducers
• Hall voltage is produced when a material is Kept perpendicular to the magnetic
field and a direct current is passed through it.
• The Hall-voltage is expressed as

IC 
VH  K H
• Where t
• Ic: Control current flowing through the Hall sensor, in Amps
• : Flux density of the magnetic field applied, in Wb/m2
• t: Thickness of the Hall-effect sensor, in meters
• KH : Hall-effect coefficient
• Hall-effect sensors are used to measure flux density
• Can detect very week magnetic fields or small change in magnetic flux density

88
 Hall-effect Transducers …
• Like active sensors, it generates voltage
VH
• It also need an external control current IC
like passive sensors
• The sensor can be used for measurement
of
• Magnetic quantities (B, )
• Mobility of carriers
• Very small amount of power

89
 Hall-effect Transducers …

• Magnetic field forces electrons to

concentrate on one side of the
conductor (mainly uses
semiconductor)
• This accumulation creates emf,
which is proportional to the
magnetic field strength
• Used in proximity sensors

90
Tachometric Generators
• Tachometer – any device used to measure shaft’s rotation
• Tachometric generator
• A machine, when driven by a rotating mechanical force, produces an electric
output proportional to the speed of rotation
• Essentially a small generators
• Tachometric generators connect to the rotating shaft, whose displacement is to be
measured, by, e.g.,
• Direct coupling or
• Means of belts or gears
• They produce an output which primarily relates to speed
• Displacement can be obtained by integrating speed
• Types of Tachometric generators: Generally a.c. or d.c.
91
Tachometric Generators
• Voltage generated is proportional to rotation of the shaft

A.C. tachometric generator

D.C. tachometric generator

92
Based on the quantity they convert
Sensors are also classified based on the quantity they convert such as:
displacement sensor
nt
torque sensors e
n m
force sensors is g
As
optical sensor
ng
proximity sensors a di
R e
temperature sensors
speed sensors
level/flow sensors
 acceleration/vibration sensors e.t.c 93
 Thank
you
For your
Attention!!!
94