Scientific Research Methods

Joint Masters of Science of Program

with Debre Markos University
Yom Institute of Economic Development
 Contents:
• Introduction
• Formulation of Research problem and
Hypothesis
• Literature Review
• Research Design and Methods of Research
• Census and Sample Investigation
• Data Collection Processing and Analysis
• Writing the Research Report for Proposal and
Research Paper
1.1. Definition of Research
 1.1 Definition of Research
• We all possess the vital instinct of curiosity.
• When the unknown confronts us, we wonder
and probe to attain full understanding of the
unknown.
• This curiosity is the mother of all knowledge.
• The method, which we employ for obtaining the
knowledge of whatever the unknown is,
therefore, research.
Research is more than a reflection of our opinions
and prejudgments.
Research is defined as:
a search for knowledge in a scientific manner.
“a careful investigation or inquiry specially
through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.”
a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”
a movement from the unknown to the known.
a voyage of discovery.
• ‘Research’ refers to the systematic method
consisting of:
articulating the problem,
formulating a hypothesis,
collecting data,
analyzing the data and
reaching certain conclusions.
Social research should also fulfil the following requirements:
1. systematic, i.e. follows precise methods that are logically
consistent, transparent and open to inspection
2. non-discriminatory and non-exploitative to its subjects,
i.e. neither directly or indirectly should discriminate
against its subjects, physically or mentally harm them,
nor exploit them for own profit
3. open to criticism, i.e. research should be made public
through publications and be open to inspection both for
its procedures and its findings, and
4. independent, i.e. be free from direct or indirect
suppression, restriction, editing
1.3 Objectives of Research
 1.3 Objectives of Research
• The purpose of research is to discover answers to
questions through the application of scientific
procedures.
• The main aim of research is to find out the truth
which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet.
• Though each research study has its own specific
purpose, we may think of research objectives as
falling into a number of the following broad
groupings:
 Objectives of Research
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to
achieve new insights into it;
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group;
3. To determine the frequency with which
something occurs or it’s associated with
something else;
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship
between variables.
 Motivations in Research
• What makes people to undertake research?
• This is a question of fundamental importance.
• The possible motives for doing research may be
either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its
consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the
unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
 Motivations in Research
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some
creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respect;
6. Curiosity about new things,; and
7. Desire to understand causal relationships
1.4. Characteristics of Research
 1.4. Characteristics of Research
Research is defined as the scientific investigation of phenomena which
includes collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of facts that lines
an individual’s speculation with reality.
• Characteristics of Research: -
1. Empirical:- Research is based on direct experience or observation by the
researcher.
2. Logical: -Research is based on valid procedures and principles.
3. Cyclical.:-Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and
ends with a problem.
4. Analytical:-Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the
data, whether historical, descriptive, and experimental and case study.
5. Critical.: -Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.
6. Methodical: Research is conducted in a methodical manner without bias
using systematic method and procedures.
7. Replicability: - The research design and procedures are replicated or
repeated to enable the researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results.
Characteristics of the Researcher:

1) Intellectual Curiosity: A researcher undertakes a

deep thinking and inquiry of the things, and
situations around him.
2) Prudence: The researcher is careful to conduct his
research study at the right time and at the right place
wisely, efficiently, and economically.
3) Healthy Criticism: The researcher is always doubtful
as to the truthfulness of the results.
4) Intellectual Honesty: An intelligent researcher is
honest to collect or gather data or facts in order to
arrive at honest results.
5) Intellectual Creativity: A productive and resourceful
investigator always creates new researches.
1.5. Classification of Research
1.5. Classification of Research
• Research comes in many shapes and sizes. Before a researcher b
egins to conduct a study, he or she must decide on
a specific type of research.  

• Good researchers understand the advantages and
disadvantages of each type, although most end
up specializing in one.
• For classification of research we shall look from four dimensions
1.The purpose of doing research;
2. The intended uses of research;
3. How it treats time i.e. the time dimension in research; and
4.The research (data collection) techniques used in it.
 1) Research Classification by The purpose of doing research;

A)Exploratory or Formulative
• You may be exploring  new topic or issue in order to learn about it. If
the issue was new or the researcher has written little on it, you began at
the beginning. This is called exploratory research.
• Exploratory research may be the first stage in a sequence of studies. 
• A researcher may need to know enough to design
and execute a second, more systematic as well as extensive study.
• When a researcher has a limited amount of experience with or
knowledge about a research issue, exploratory research is useful
preliminary step that helps ensure that a more rigorous, more
conclusive future study will not begin with an inadequate
understanding of the nature of the management problem.
• The findings discovered through exploratory research would the
researchers to emphasize learning more about the particulars of
the findings in subsequent conclusive studies.
Goals of Exploratory Research
1)Become familiar with the basic facts, setting, and concerns;
2)Develop well grounded picture of the situation;
3)Develop tentative theories, generate new ideas, conjectures,
or hypotheses;
4)Determine the feasibility of conducting the study;
5)Formulate questions  & refine issues for more systematic inquiry
6)Develop techniques and a sense of direction for future research.
 B) Descriptive Research
• Descriptive research presents a picture of the specific
details of a situation, social setting, or relationship. The
major purpose of descriptive research, as the term
implies, is to describe characteristics of a population or
phenomenon. Descriptive research seeks to determine
the answers to who, what, when, where, and how
questions. Labor Force Surveys, Population Census, and
Educational Census are examples of such research.
• Descriptive study offers to the researcher a profile or
description of relevant aspects of the phenomena of
interest. Look at the class in research methods and try to
give its profile ¬ the characteristics of the students. When
we start to look at the relationship of the variables, then
it may help in diagnosis analysis.
• Goals of Descriptive Research
1) Describe the situation in terms of its characteristics 
2) Give a verbal or numerical picture (%) of the situation;
3) Present background information;
4) Create a set of categories or classify the information;
5) Clarify sequence, set of stages; and
6) Focus on `who,' `what,' `when,' `where,' and `how' but not why?
 C) Explanatory Research
• When we encounter an issue that is already known and have a
description of it, we might begin to wonder why things are the
way they are.
• The desire to know "why," to explain, is the purpose of
explanatory research. It builds on exploratory and descriptive
research and goes on to identify the reasons for something
that occurs. Explanatory research looks for causes and reasons.
• For example, a descriptive research may discover that 10
percent of the parents abuse their children, whereas the
explanatory researcher is more interested in learning why
parents abuse their children
Goals of Explanatory Research
1) Explain things not just reporting. Why? Elaborate and enri
ch a theory's explanation.
2) Determine which of several explanations is best.
3) Determine the accuracy of the theory; 
4) Test a theory's predictions or principle.
5) Advance knowledge about underlying process.
6) Build and elaborate a theory; 
7) Elaborate and enrich a theory's predictions or principle.
8) Extend a theory or principle to new areas and new topics:
9) Provide evidence to support or refute 
10) Test a theory's predictions or principles
 2) Research classification by USE

A) Basic Research
• Basic research advances fundamental knowledge abou
t the human world. 
• It focuses on refuting or
supporting theories that explain how world operate
what makes things happen, why social
relations are a certain way, and why society changes. 
• Basic research is the source of most new scientific
ideas and ways of thinking about the world. 
• It can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory; 
however, explanatory research is the most common.
• Basic research generates new ideas, principles and
theories, which may not be immediately utilized; though
are the foundations of modern progress and development
in different fields.
• A new idea or fundamental knowledge is not generated
only by basic research. Applied research, too, can build
new knowledge. Nonetheless, basic research is essential
for nourishing the expansion of knowledge. Researchers at
the center of the scientific community conduct most of
the basic research
B) Applied Research
• Applied researchers try to solve specific policy problems or help
practitioners accomplish tasks. Theory is less central to them than seeking
a solution on a specific problem for a limited setting.
• Applied research is frequently a descriptive research, and its main
strength is its immediate practical use. Applied research is conducted
when decision must be made about a specific real-life problem.
• Applied research encompasses those studies undertaken to answer
questions about specific problems or to make decisions about a particular
course of action or policy.
• For example, an organization contemplating a paperless office and a
networking system for the company's personal computers may conduct
research to learn the amount of time its employees spend at personal
computers in an average week
Types of Applied Research
i) Action research
ii) Impact Assessment Research
iii) Evaluation Research
C. Basic and Applied Research Compared
•The procedures and techniques utilized by basic and applied
researchers do not differ substantially.
•Both employ the scientific method to answer the questions at
hand.
•The consumers of applied research findings are practitioners.
Often, someone other than the researcher who conducted the
study uses the results of applied research. This means that
applied researchers have an obligation to translate findings from
scientific technical language into the language of decision
makers or practitioners.
•The results of applied research are less likely to enter the public
domain in publications. Results may be available only to a small
number of decision makers or practitioners, who decide
whether or how to put the research results into practice and
who may or may not use the results.
• Applied and basic researchers adopt different orientations
toward research methodology.
• Basic researchers emphasize high standards and try to
conduct near-perfect research.
• Applied researcher make more trade-offs. They may
compromise scientific rigor to get quick, usable results.
Compromise is no excuse for sloppy research, however.
Applied researchers squeeze research into the constraints
of an applied setting and balance rigor against practical
needs.
• Such balancing requires an in-depth knowledge of
research and an awareness of the consequences of
compromising standards
4) Research by Time Dimension:
1.Cross-Sectional Research
2.Time series Research
3.The panel study 
4.A cohort analysis
5)Research (data collection) Techniques Used
• Quantitative: - Experiments, Surveys,
and Content Analysis and Using Existing Statistics
• Qualitative :- Field Research, Case Study and
Focus Group Discussion
1.6. Scientific Approaches
 1.6 Scientific Approaches
• The general process called the scientific approach is
influenced by the philosophical views.
• The approach can be characterized as having the following
general steps:
– Identifying the problem/issue/question.
– Defining the research objectives
– Develop approaches for achieving the objectives
– Conduct the analysis
– Interpret the result and draw conclusions.
 Scientific Approaches:
Deductive and Inductive Thinking
• The modern method of science is broadly of two types:
Induction and Deduction.
• Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the
more specific.
– Also called a "top-down" approach.
– begin with a theory – to specific hypotheses – into
observations.
– test the hypotheses with specific data- a confirmation
(or not) of our original theories.
Deductive Reasoning
 Scientific Approaches:
Deductive and Inductive Thinking
• Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from
specific observations to broader generalizations and
theories.
– this is a "bottom up" approach.
• We begin with specific observations and measures, begin to
detect patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative
hypotheses, and finally end up developing some general
conclusions or theories.
Inductive Thinking
1.7.Types of Research
 1.7.Types of Research
• The basic types of research are as follows:
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical:
• Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-
finding enquiries of different kinds.
• The major purpose of descriptive research is
description of the state of affairs as it exists at
present.
• In social science and business research we quite
often use descriptive research.
• In analytical research, the researcher analyzes
information to make a critical evaluation of the
material.
 Types of Research
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be
applied (or action) research or fundamental (basic or
pure) research.
• Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an
industry/organization,
• Fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.
 Types of Research
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
• Quantitative research is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount.
• It is applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity.
• Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon whose aim is to discover the
underlying motives of human behaviour.
 If you: Then Use:
• want to conduct statistical analysis

• want to be precise
Quantitative
• know what you want to measure

• want to cover a large group

• want narrative or in-depth information

• are not sure what you are able to measure Qualitative

• do not need to quantify the results

 Types of Research
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical:
• Conceptual research is that related to some
abstract idea(s) or theory.
• It is used to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones.
• Empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for
system and theory.
• It is data-based research.
• It comes up with conclusions which are capable of
being verified by observation or experiment.
1.8. Research Ethics
 1.8 Research Ethics

Ethics: The established customs, morals, and fundamental human relationships

that exist throughout the world.

Ethical Behavior: Behavior that is morally accepted as good or right as

opposed to bad or wrong. General ethical rules apply also to the researchers.
• Researchers, subjects, funding bodies and society may have conflicting
incentives.

A. Researchers-researchers

 Researchers may be unethical on researchers

Plagiarism: using words or ideas without proper acknowledgment

• Plagiarism is the unauthorized use of someone else's thoughts or wording either by

o Incorrect documentation, failing to cite your sources altogether, or

o Simply by relying too heavily on external resources.

• Whether intentional or unintended some or all of another author's ideas become

represented as your own.
• Plagiarizing undermines your academic integrity.

o It betrays your own responsibilities,

o As a student writer,

o Your audience, and

o The very research community you were entering by deciding to write a research
paper in the first place.
B. Researchers-society

• Falsifying data: Changing data

• Fabrication: Making up data

• Irresponsible policy advise

• Waste of research fund

C. Funding bodies-researchers

• Fund allocations directing research

• i.e. ‘money buying research results’?

• Therefore, some important shared values for the responsible conduct of
research include:

HONESTY — conveying information truthfully and honoring

commitments,

ACCURACY — reporting findings precisely and taking care to

avoid errors,

EFFICIENCY — using resources wisely and avoiding waste, and

OBJECTIVITY — letting the facts speak for themselves and

avoiding improper bias
 Summary for Chapter One

• Distinctions can also be made between quantitative and

qualitative research. Quantitative research is based upon
numerical measurement and analysis. Qualitative
research is based upon non-numerical analysis of words,
feelings, emotions and so on.
• Research may follow a deductive or an inductive process.
Deductive research involves the testing of a
predetermined theory, explanation or hypothesis.
Inductive research generates the explanation from the
data collected.
 Chapter Two: Formulation of Research
Problem and Hypothesis
2.1. Research Problem
2.1.1. Source of Research Problem
2.1.2. Criteria of a good Research Problem
2.1.3. Formulating and testing of the problem
2.2. Research Hypothesis
2.2.1. Characteristics of a usable hypothesis
2.2.2. Difficulties in formulating Hypothesis
2.2.3. Hypothesis Testing
2.2.4. Criteria for Good Hypothesis
 The Research Process
• Before embarking on the details of research
methodology and techniques, it seems appropriate
to present a brief overview of the research process.

• Research process consists of series of actions or

steps necessary to effectively carry out research
and the desired sequencing of these steps
 Design the
Define the Review the Formulate Research
research problem Literature Hypotheses (including
Sampling)

Collect Data

Analyze Data

Interpret and
Report
 2.1.Souces of Research Problem
A Research problem is a discrepancy between what
one knows and ought to know to solve a problem.
Sources are:
1. Experiences
2. Literatures
3. Theories
4. Reports
5. Technology
6. Inconsistence in past studies
 2.2. Criteria of good research problem

1. Interests
2. Researchable
3. Feasible/practical
4. Significance
5. Economics
 2.3. Formulating a Research Process
1. Defining a problem
2. Showing the severity of the problem with data
3. Showing the extent of the problem with data
4. Showing the gap in the previous studies and your
value-added
 Defining the Research Problem
 Knowing what to research and its purpose is key to the first step in
the research design.
 A good research topic is broad enough to allow you to find plenty of
material, but narrow enough to fit within the size and time
constraints of your paper.
• To do a research a topic or a felt practical or theoretical difficulty
must be identified.
 The problem identification affects the quality, usefulness,
effectiveness and efficiency of the research activity.
 Defining the problem, showing the severity of the problem, showing
the extent of the problem, and showing the gaps
 Defining the Research Problem
• What does one mean when he/she wants to
define a research problem?
• The answer may be that one wants to state the
problem along with the bounds within which it is
to be studied.
• It involves the task of laying down boundaries
within which a researcher shall study the
problem.
• How to define a research problem is undoubtedly
a herculean/exceptional task.
 Defining the Research Problem
• However, it is a task that must be tackled
intelligently to avoid the confusion encountered in
a research operation.
• Defining a research problem properly and clearly
is a crucial part of a research study and must in no
case be accomplished quickly.
• However, in practice this is frequently overlooked,
which causes a lot of problems later on.
• Hence, the research problem should be defined in
a systematic manner, giving due emphasis to all
relating points.
The research problem and objectives
The researcher must know exactly what his/her
problem is before he/she begins working on it.
 A problem clearly defined is a problem half solved.

◦ Problem definition or problem statement is a clear

and precise statement of the question or issue to
be investigated.
» Laying down the boundaries within which a
researcher shall study the problem.
 Helps to narrow the perspectives of the problem
to a set of issues on which new information is
sought.
The research problem and objectives
• Defining the problem clearly will help to find
answers to questions like:
– What data are to be collected?
– What characteristics of data are relevant and
need to be studied
– What relations are to be explored
– What techniques are to be used for the
purpose
 The research problem and
objectives
• In the formal definition of the problem the
researcher is required
• to describe the background of the study, its
theoretical basis and underlying assumptions
in concrete, specific and workable questions.
• The problem statement should make a convincing
argument that there isn’t sufficient knowledge
available to explain the problem or
– there is, at least, a need to test what is known
and taken as fact.
 The research problem and objectives
Some ways to show that you are adding to the knowledge in
your field:
• Gap: A research gap is an area where no or little research
has been carried out.
• The research problem is defined by asking a question to
which the answer is unknown, and which you will explore
in your research.
◦ Counter-claiming: A conflicting claim, theory or method is
put forward.
◦ Continuing a previously developed line of enquiry:
Building on work already done, but taking it further (by
using a new sample, extending the area studied, taking
more factors into consideration, taking fewer factors into
consideration, etc).
 The research problem and objectives
• The researcher should be focused, and should single out
and clearly state the problem.
• S/He should ask whether the problem is:
 Amenable to empirical investigation or evaluation
through collection and analysis of relevant data
 Brief, clear and precise
 Researchable in respect to appropriate sources of
data/information that can provide solutions to the
problem identified
 Solvable
 Fitting itself well to established theories or concepts

61
The research problem and objectives
 In defining the statement of the problem, the
following questions could be helpful:
 Who is affected and how?
 What is missing and where?
 What went wrong and to what extent?
 What are the notable effects, where, extent for whom?
 Is the problem self-expressive or does it generate other
problems?
 What have others to say about it? Establishing the gap!

62
 The research problem and
objectives
• The problem is very important in the sense that it should
receive considerable and persuasive attention
• Its importance is inevitably subjective and will vary from
researcher to researcher.
Objectivity can be injected by answering questions such
as:
• Is the problem of current interest? Is it topical (up-to-
date)?
• Is the problem likely to continue into the future?
• Would the information about the problem have
practical application?
 The research problem and objectives
• Will the information about the problem have theoretical
importance?
• How large is the population affected by the problem?
• Would this study substantially revise or extend existing
knowledge?
• Would this study create or improve an instrument of some
utility?
• Would research findings lead to some useful change in
best practice?
• Is there evidence or authoritative opinion from others to
support the need for this research?
 The research problem and objectives
• The problem statement could close with a question.
• Typically, the question could contain two variables, a
measurable relationship, and some indication of
population.
• A good example of research question:
• "What is the relationship between farm productivity and
farmer use of fertilizer"?
• The information needed is:
– Productivity levels
– Some measure of fertilizer use.
 The research problem and objectives
• Hazardous noise is an important occupational health
problem because it leads to hearing loss and may lead to
increased stress and other deleterious physiological effects.
More than 30 million workers are exposed to hazardous
noise on the job…Use of hearing protection devices,
specifically ear plugs is known to reduce noise exposure
and prevent noise – induced hearing loss… there are,
however, relatively few investigators who have examined
factors related to the low use of hearing protection by
workers.

• Start from here!

 The research problem and objectives
• A bad example might be: "What is the best way to train for
use of fertilizer"?
- This is insufficient because:
 What are the variables?
 What will be measured?
 What relationships
 The research problem and objectives
Steps in defining the research problem:
a) Statement of the problem in a general way
– Problem stated in a broad and general way keeping in
mind the practical concern or the scientific or
intellectual interest.
 b)Understanding the nature of the problem more clearly
– The next steps is to understand its origin and nature
clearly.
• The best way is to discuss it with other more acquainted
or experienced people.
The research problem and objectives
c) Developing the ideas through discussion
– Discussion concerning a problem often
produces useful information.
– The discussion sharpens the researcher’s focus
of attentions on specific aspects of the study.
d)  Survey of the available literature
• Devote sufficient time to review both the
conceptual and empirical literature.
 The research problem and objectives
This exercise enables the researcher to
1. find out what data are available
2. find out whether the existing theory is
applicable to the problem under study.
3. ensure that no one else has already
exhausted the questions that he/she aims to
examine, etc.
e) Rephrasing the research problem:
◦ Researcher rephrases the research problem into a
working proposition.
◦ Rephrasing – putting the research problem in as
specific terms as possible.
 The research problem and objectives
f) In addition
– Technical terms or phrases, with special meanings
should be clearly defined.
– Basic assumptions or postulates relating to the
research problem should be clearly stated.
– The suitability of the time period and the sources of
data available must be considered in defining the
problem.
– The scope of the investigation within which the
problem is to be studied must be mentioned
explicitly in defining a research problem.
 The research problem and objectives
Objectives of the study:
– This is the step of rephrasing the problem into
operational or analytical terms, i.e. to put the problem
in as specific terms as possible.
– in this section the specific activities to be achieved are
listed.
• The main purposes of the study must be clearly
articulated.
• The general objective provides a short statement of the
specific goals pursued by the research.
• The specific objectives are the objectives against which
the success of the whole research will be judged.
The research problem and objectives
– The specific objectives are operational and indicate
the type of knowledge to be produced, audiences
to be reached, etc.
• An objective should be Specific, Measurable,
Achievable, Realistic and Time-bound – that is,
SMART.
– It must flow logically and clearly from the purpose,
problem statement and justification already stated.
 Identification of a Research Topic
• There are three types of research titles:
– Indicative title:
• they state the subject of the proposal rather than
expected outcomes.
– Example: The role of agricultural credit in alleviating
poverty in a low-potential area of Ethiopia.
– Hanging titles have two parts: a general first part followed
by a more specific second part.
• Example: ‘Alleviation of poverty in low-potential area of
Ethiopia: the impact of agricultural credit’.
 Identification of a Research Topic
• Question-type titles are used less commonly than
indicative and hanging titles.
• However, they are acceptable where it is possible to
use few words – say less than 15.
– Example: ‘Does agricultural credit alleviate poverty
in low-potential areas of Ethiopia?’
 Identification of a Research Topic
Where do research topics come from?
• A topic must spring from the researcher’s mind like a
plant springs from its own seed.
– It could be generated by the researcher
• The best way to identify a topic is to draw up a
shortlist of possible topics that have emerged from
your reading or from your own experience that look
potentially interesting.
– A general area of interest or aspect of a subject
matter (agriculture, industry, social sector, etc.) may
have to be identified at first.
 Identification of a Research Topic
A) Professional Experience
• Own professional experience is the most important source
of a research problem.
• Many researchers are directly engaged in program
implementation and come up with a topic based on what
they see happening around them.
– Contacts and discussions with others,
– attending conferences, seminars, and
– listening to learned speakers
• are all helpful in identifying research problems.
 Identification of a Research Topic
b) Inferences from the literature
• Another source for research ideas is the theoretical or
empirical literature in your specific field.
• Many researchers get ideas for research by reading the
literature and thinking of ways to extend or refine previous
research.
• Two types of literature can be reviewed.
The conceptual literature
The empirical literature
• Research reports, bibliographies of books, and articles,
periodicals, research abstracts and research guides suggest
areas that need research.
 Identification of a Research Topic
C) Provided by a client
– Requests For Proposals (RFPs) are published by
government agencies and some companies.
• These RFPs describe some problem that the agency
would like researchers to address -- they are
virtually handing the researcher an idea.
• The RFP describes the problem that needs
addressing, the contexts in which it operates, the
approach they would like you to take to investigate
to address the problem, and the amount they would
be willing to pay for such research.
 Identification of a Research Topic
d) Technological and Social Changes
– New developments bring forth new development
challenges for research.
e) Other Sources
• Many researchers simply think up their research topic on
their own.
• No one lives in a vacuum, so we would expect that the
ideas you come up with on your own are influenced by
your background, culture, education and experiences.
 Identification of a Research Topic

• In any case, the most fundamental rule of good research is

to investigate questions that sincerely interest you.
• i.e. research which a researcher honestly enjoys even
if he/she encounters problems frustrating or
discouraging.
• The following points are important in selecting a research
problem or a subject for research.
• Subject, which is overdone, should be avoided since it
will be difficult to throw any new light in such cases
for the average researcher.
 Identification of a Research Topic
• Controversial subjects should not become the choice of the
average researcher.
• Too narrow or too broad or vague problems should be
avoided
• The importance of the subject in terms of:
 The qualification and training of researcher,
 The cost involved and the time factor, etc.
 Identification of a Research Topic
• The choice of a research topic is not made in a vacuum and
is influenced by several factors:
 Interest and Values of the Researcher,
 Current Debate in the Academic world,
 Funding,
 The value and power of the subject, etc.
• Many of these involve making tradeoffs between rigor and
practicality.
 2.2. Research Hypothesis
• It is a tentative prediction or explanation about
the relationship between variables: Ho and H1

• It is simple or complex and directional or non-

directional.

• Purpose of Research Hypothesis

1. Unifying the theory to reality

2. Extends knowledge
3. Give direction to research
2.2.1. Characteristics of a usable hypothesis

1. Specify relationship
2. Testable
3. Justifiable
4. Brief
2.2.2. Difficulties in formulating Hypothesis
•The degree of challenges to the hypothesis depends on the type of a problem and
its importance. It can range from just seeking a good enough solution to a much
more rigorous challenges.
• The terms challenging may include:
1. Verification፡ is the act of reviewing, inspecting or testing,
2. Justification፡ the action of showing something to be right or
reasonable.
3. Refutability፡ To prove to be false or erroneous
4. Validity፡ the quality of being logically or factually sound; soundness or cogency
5. Rectification፡ the action of putting something right
6. Repeatability፡ test–retest reliability is the variation in measurements
taken by a single person or instrument on the same item, under the
same conditions, and in a short period of time. A less-than-perfect
test–retest reliability causes test–retest variability.
7. Falsification፡ the action of falsifying information or a theory.
 2.2.3. Hypothesis Testing
There are four procedures:
1. Stating the hypothesis
2. Setting the criteria for a decision
3. Collecting data
4. Evaluate the H0
Problem: Type I (When Ho is wrongly rejected) and Type II
accept Ho wrongly when it is false in fact)
Decision
Reject Ho Accept Ho
Truth Ho Type I Right Decision
H1 Right Decision Type II
2.2.4. Criteria for Good Hypothesis
1. Identify Y and X variables
2. Specify the nature of relationship
3. Simple and concise, better to have several hypothesis that
one complicated hypothesis
4. Does not included reference to specific measure
5. Does not refer to specific statistical procedures that will be
used in analysis
6. Implies the population you are going to study
7. Is falsifiable and testable