E E 2315

Lecture 03 - Simple
Resistive Circuits and
Applications
 Calculating Resistance
 l When conductor has uniform
R
A cross-section

cu  1.67 106   cm

 al  2.70 106   cm
Are a ,
A
l
Temperature Coefficient of Resistance
Metallic conductors have a linear increase of resistance with
increased temperature.
R(T )  Ro 1    T  To  

To is the reference temperature (usually 20oC) and Ro is the

resistance at the reference temperature.  is the temperature
coefficient of resistance for the material. At 20oC, some
values for  are:

Material Alpha @ 20oC

Aluminum 0.004308
Copper 0.004041
 I1 R1 Resistors in Series
Is + V1 - I2 Is
+ +
Vs R 2 Vs Vs Req
V2
- -

By KCL: Is = I1= I2
By Ohm’s Law: V1 = R1·I1 and V2 = R2·I2
Combine: Vs = R1I1 + R2I2 = (R1 + R2) Is = ReqIs
In General: Req = R1 + R2 +···+ Rn
 Resistors in Parallel (1/2)

I1 I2
+ + + +
Is Vs V1 R1 V2 R 2 Is Vs Req
- - - -

By KVL: Vs = V1 = V2 By KCL: Is = I1 + I2
V1 V2
By Ohm’s Law: I1  and I2 
R1 R2

Combine:
 Resistors in Parallel (2/2)

For two resistors:

For many resistors: 1 1 1 1

  
Req R1 R2 Rn
In terms of conductance:
Geq  G1  G2    Gn
 Voltage Divider Circuit
+ V1 -
I R1 +
Vs R2 V2 Me a s u re
- V2

Vs
I
R1  R2
Vs R2
V2  I  R2  R2  Vs
R1  R2 R1  R2
 Loaded Voltage Divider
R2 RL R1
Req 
R2  RL
+
Vs R 2 Vo RL
-

R2 RL
Vo  Vs
R1  R2  RL   R2 RL
 Voltage Divider Equations
R2
Unloaded: Vo  Vs
R1  R2

R2
Loaded: Vo  Vs
 R2 
R1   1  R2
 RL 

If RL >> R2:
Current Divider Circuit (1/2)

+ i1 i2
Is vo G1 G2
-
i1 i2 Is
vo   
G1 G2 G1  G2
1
G2 R2
i2  I s  Is
G1  G2 1  1
R1 R2
 Current Divider Circuit (2/2)

+ i1 i2
Is vo G1 G2
-
1
If there are R2 R1 R2
i2  I s 
only 1  1 R1 R2
two paths: R1 R2
Gn
In general: in  I s
G1  G2    Gn
 D’Arsonval Meter Movement
• Permanent Magnet Frame
• Torque on rotor proportional to coil
current
• Restraint spring opposes electric torque
• Angular deflection of indicator
proportional to rotor coil current

S N
 D’Arsonval Voltmeter
• Small voltage rating on movement (~50 mV)
• Small current rating on movement (~1 mA)
• Must use voltage dropping resistor, Rv

Rv I d 'A

+ + V Rv - +
Vx V d 'A
- -
Example: 1 Volt F.S. Voltmeter

950  1 m A

+ + 0.95 V - +
1.0 V 50 m V
- -

Note: d’Arsonval movement has resistance of 50 

Scale chosen for 1.0 volt full deflection.
Example: 10V F.S. Voltmeter

9950  1 m A

+ + 9.95 V - +
10 V 50 m V
- -

Scale chosen for 10 volts full deflection.

 D’Arsonval Ammeter
• Small voltage rating on movement (~50 mV)
• Small current rating on movement (~1 mA)
• Must use current bypass conductor, Ga

I Ga I d 'A
Ix +
Ga V d 'A
-
 Example: 1 Amp F.S. Ammeter

999 m A 1 mA
1.0 A +
19.98 S 50 m V
-

Note: d’Arsonval movement has conductance

of 0.02 S

Ga = 19.98 S has ~50.050 m resistance.

Scale chosen for 1.0 amp full deflection.
Example: 10 Amp F.S. Ammeter

9.999 A 1 mA
10 A +
199.98 S 50 m V
-

Ga = 199.98 S has ~5.0005 m resistance.

Scale chosen for 10 amp full deflection.

 Measurement Errors

• Inherent Instrument Error

• Poor Calibration
• Improper Use of Instrument
• Application of Instrument Changes
What was to be Measured
– Ideal Voltmeters have Infinite Resistance
– Ideal Ammeters have Zero Resistance
Example: Voltage Measurement
400 

+ 10 k 
45 V 100  Vo v o lt-
- m e te r

100 
True Voltage: Vo  45V  9V
500 
(If voltmeter removed)
Example: Voltage Measurement
Measured Voltage:

100 
Vo  45V  8.9286
 100  
400  1    100 
 10 k  
Another Voltage Measurement (1/2)
40 k 

+ 10 k 
45 V 10 k  Vo v o lt-
- m e te r

10 k 
True Voltage: Vo  45V  9V
50 k 
(If voltmeter removed)
Another Voltage Measurement (2/2)

Measured Voltage:

 5.0V 
% Error    1100%  44.44%
 9.0V 
Example: Current Measurement (1/2)
100 

Io
5A 25  50 m 
Am m e te r

25 
True Current: Io  5 A  1.0 A
125 
(If ammeter replaced by short circuit)
Example: Current Measurement (2/2)
Measured Current:

25 
Io  5 A  0.9996 A
125.05 

 0.9996 A 
% Error    1100%  .04%
 1.0 A 
Another Current Measurement (1/2)
100 m 

Io
5A 25 m  50 m 
Am m e te r

25 m
True Current: Io  5 A  1.0 A
125 m
(If ammeter replaced by short circuit)
Another Current Measurement (2/2)
Measured Current:

25 m
Io  5 A  0.7143 A
175 m
 Measuring Resistance

• Indirect
– Measure Voltage across Resistor
– Measure Current through Resistor
– Calculate Resistance (Inaccurate)
• d’Arsonval Ohmmeter
– Very Simple
– Inaccurate
• Wheatstone Bridge (Most Accurate)
 D’Arsonval Ohmmeter

Rb

Vb Rx

Rad j

Need to adjust Radj and zero setting each scale

change.
 Ohmmeter Example

5
7.
. 5 150 5
2 50
4 50

10
8

0
0

10 mA Full Scale (Outer Numbers)

Rb+Radj+Rd’A=150  Vb=1.5 V
Inner (Nonlinear) Scale in Ohms
Wheatstone Bridge
Vab= 0 and Iab= 0
c
I1 I2 Vad = Vbd
R2
Rg R1
+ Va b -
a b
Ia b R1I1=R2I2
Vg R3 Rx
R3I3=RxIx
I3 Ix
d
 Example: Wheatstone Bridge
150  300 
c 
450  900 

100  150  300 

Rq
I a b

1 kV 450  900 