Chapter 3 – Resistance

Lecture 2
Reference:
Introductory Circuit Dr. Mona Sayed
Analysis
Robert L. Boylestad
 Objectives
Become familiar with the parameters that determine the resistance of an
element and be able to calculate the resistance from the given dimensions
and material characteristics.
Become familiar with the broad range of commercially available resistors
available today and how to read the value of each from the color code or
labeling.
Become aware of a variety of elements such as thermistors,
photoconductive cells, and varistors and how their terminal resistance is
controlled.
 Introduction
The opposition to the flow of charge through an
electrical circuit, called resistance, has the units of
ohms and uses the Greek letter omega (Ω) as its
symbol.
The graphic symbol for resistance, which resembles
the cutting edge of a saw.

FIG. 3.1 Resistance symbol and notation.

 Introduction
This opposition, due primarily to collisions and friction
between the free electrons and other electrons, ions,
and atoms in the path of motion, converts the supplied
electrical energy into heat that raises the temperature of
the electrical component and surrounding medium.
The heat you feel from an electrical heater is simply
due to current passing through a high-resistance
material.
 3.2 Resistance : CIRCULAR WIRES
The resistance of any material is due primarily to four
factors:
Material
Length
Cross-sectional area
Temperature of the material
 Resistance: CIRCULAR WIRES
 
 Resistance: CIRCULAR WIRES

FIG. 3.2 Factors affecting the resistance of a conductor.

The higher the resistivity, the greater the resistance of a conductor.

The longer the conductor, the greater the resistance.
The greater the area of a conductor, the less the resistance.
The higher the temperature of a conductor, the more the resistance.
 Resistance: Circular Wires
Area of a conductor is measured in circular mils (CM)
The mil is a unit of measurement for length and is related to the inch by
__1_ inch.
1 mill = 1000
A wire with a diameter of 1 mil has an area of 1 circular mil (CM).
 Resistance: Circular Wires
A wire with a diameter of 1 mil has an area of 1 CM.
Resistance: Circular Wires

__1_ inch.
1 mill = 1000
Resistance: Circular Wires
Resistance: Circular Wires
 Resistance: Circular Wires
Resistivity is not the only factor used in determining
the best conductor. Other factors are:
 Malleability – ability of a material to be shaped
 Ductility – ability of a material to be drawn into long, thin
wires
 Temperature sensitivity
 Resistance to abuse
 Cost
 Resistance: Circular Wires
 Copper is the most widely used material because it is quite
malleable, ductile and available.
 Aluminum was tried for general wiring but because of its
thermal characteristics created difficulties.
 Silver and gold are used but because of cost, they have been
limited to places that justify the cost.
 Tungsten has a resistivity three times that of copper but there
are occasions when its physical characteristics (durability and
hardness) are the overriding considerations.
 3.3 Wire tables
 Designed to standardize the size of wire produced by
manufacturers, it contains the following information:
 Cross-sectional area in circular mils
 Diameter in mils
 Ohms per 1000 feet at 20°C
 Weight per 1000 feet
 Maximum allowable current in amperes, as determined by
the National Fire Protection Association.
 The American Wire Gage (AWG) indicates cable size.
Wire tables
TABLE 3.2 American Wire Gage (AWG) sizes.
 3.4 RESISTANCE: METRIC UNITS
In SI units, the resistivity would be measured in ohm-meters,
the area in square meters, and the length in meters. However,
the meter is generally too large a unit of measure for most
applications, and so the centimeter is usually employed.
The resulting dimensions for Eq. (3.1) are therefore:

The units for r can be derived from

RESISTANCE: METRIC UNITS
 3.5 Temperature Effects
 Temperature has a significant effect on the resistance
of conductors, semiconductors and insulators
 For good conductors, an increase in temperature will result in an
increase in the resistance level. Consequently, conductors have a
positive coefficient
 For semiconductor materials, an increase in temperature will result in
a decrease in the resistance level. Consequently, semiconductors
have negative temperature coefficients
 As with semiconductors, an increase in temperature will result in a
decrease in the resistance of an insulator. The result is a negative
temperature coefficient
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

FIG. 3.10 Demonstrating the effect of a positive and a negative temperature

coefficient on the resistance of a conductor.
 3.7 TYPES OF RESISTORS
Fixed Resistors
Resistors are made in many forms, but all belong in
either of two groups: fixed or variable.
The most common of the low-wattage, fixed type
resistors is the film resistor.
It is constructed by depositing a thin layer of resistive
material (typically carbon, metal, or metal oxide) on a
ceramic rod.
TYPES OF RESISTORS
Fixed Resistors

FIG. 3.12 Film resistors: (a) construction; (b) types.

 TYPES OF RESISTORS
Fixed Resistors

FIG. 3.13 Fixed-composition resistors: (a) construction; (b)

appearance.
TYPES OF RESISTORS
Fixed Resistors

FIG. 3.14 Fixed metal-oxide

resistors of different wattage
ratings.
 TYPES OF RESISTORS
Variable Resistors
Variable resistors, as the name implies, have a
terminal resistance that can be varied by turning a dial,
knob, screw, or whatever seems appropriate for the
application.
They can have two or three terminals, but most have
three terminals. If the two- or three-terminal device is
used as a variable resistor, it is usually referred to as a
rheostat.
If the three-terminal device is used for controlling potential
levels, it is then commonly called potentiometer.
 TYPES OF RESISTORS
Variable Resistors

FIG. 3.16 Potentiometer: (a) symbol; (b) and (c) rheostat connections; (d) rheostat
symbol.
TYPES OF RESISTORS
Variable Resistors

FIG. 3.17 Molded composition-type potentiometer.

(Courtesy of Allen-Bradley Co.)
TYPES OF RESISTORS
Variable Resistors

FIG. 3.20 Potentiometer control

of voltage levels.
 COLOR CODING AND STANDARD
ARESISTOR VALUES
wide variety of resistors, fixed or variable, are large
enough to have their resistance in ohms printed on the
casing.
Some, however, are too small to have numbers
printed on them, so a system of color coding is used.
For the thin-film resistor, four, five, or six bands may
be used.
The four-band scheme is described.
Later in this section the purpose of the fifth and sixth
bands will be described.
COLOR CODING AND STANDARD
RESISTOR VALUES
The four-band scheme

FIG. 3.21 Color coding for fixed resistors.

 COLOR CODING AND STANDARD
RESISTOR VALUES
The four-band scheme
The first two bands represent the first and second
digits, respectively.
The third band determines the power-of-ten multiplier
for the first two digits (actually the number of zeros that
follow the second digit for resistors greater than 10 ).
The fourth band is the manufacturer’s tolerance, which
is an indication of the precision by which the resistor
was made.
COLOR CODING AND STANDARD
RESISTOR VALUES

FIG. 3.22 Color coding.

COLOR CODING AND STANDARD
RESISTOR VALUES
FIG. 3.24 Example 3.12.
FIG. 3.23 Example 3.11.
The first two colors are gray and red,
Reading from the band closest to the left
representing the numbers 8 and 2. The
edge, we find that the first two colors of
third color is gold, representing a
brown and red represent the numbers 1
multiplier of 0.1.
and 2, respectively. The third band is
orange, representing the number 3 for Using the multiplier, we obtain a
the power of the multiplier as follows: resistance of (0.1)(82Ω ) = 8.2 Ω
resulting in a value of 12 kΩ. The fourth band is silver, representing
a tolerance of 10%.
Now for the fourth band of gold,
representing a tolerance of 5%. Maximum =8.2Ω+ 0.82 Ω= 9.02 Ω
0.05(12 kΩ) = 600Ω Minimum = 8.2 Ω- 0.82 Ω= 7.38 Ω
Maximum =12,000Ω+ 600Ω= 12.6 kΩ Range = 7.38 Ω to 9.02 Ω
Minimum = 12,000Ω- 600Ω= 11.4 kΩ
Range = 11.4 kΩ to 12.6 kΩ
 COLOR CODING AND STANDARD
RESISTOR VALUES
FIG. 3.25 Five-band color coding for fixed resistors.
 COLOR CODING AND STANDARD
RESISTOR VALUES
For four, five, or six bands, if the tolerance is less than
5%, the following colors are used to reflect the %
tolerances:
COLOR CODING AND STANDARD
RESISTOR VALUES

TABLE 3.5 Standard values of

commercially available resistors.
 COLOR CODING AND STANDARD RESISTOR VALUES
Surface Mount Resistors
In general, surface mount resistors are marked in three ways:
color coding, three symbols, and two symbols.
The color coding is the same as just described earlier in this section
for through-hole resistors.
The three-symbol approach uses three digits. The first two define the
first two digits of the value; the last digit defines the power of the
power-of-ten multiplier.
COLOR CODING AND STANDARD RESISTOR VALUES
Surface Mount Resistors
The two-symbol marking uses a letter followed by a number.
The letter defines the value as in the following list.
Note that all the numbers of the commercially available list of Table 3.5
are included.

The second symbol is the power of the power-of-ten multiplier. For

example:
 3.9 Conductance
The reciprocal of resistance is conductance (G),
measured in siemens (S)

G = 1/R (siemens, S)

A resistance of 1 MW is equivalent to a conductance of

10-6 S and a resistance of 10 W is equivalent to a
conductance of 10-1 S
 OHMMETERS
An Ohmmeter is used to perform the following tasks:
 Measure the resistance of individual or combined elements
 Detect open-circuit (high-resistance) and short-circuit (low-
resistance) situations
 Check continuity of network connections and identify wires of a
multilead cable
 Test some semiconductor (electronic) devices
Resistance is measured by simply connecting the two leads of
the meter across the resistor. It doesn’t matter which lead goes
on which end
 OHMMETERS
 When measuring the resistance of a single resistor in
a network, it is usually best to remove the resistor from
the network before making the measurement
 Important notes about the use of any ohmmeter:
Never hook up an ohmmeter to a live circuit
Never store a VOM or a DMM in the resistance mode
OHMMETERS

FIG. 3.29 Checking the

FIG. 3.28 Measuring the continuity of a
resistance of a single connection.
element.
 3.11 - Thermistors
A thermistor is a two-terminal semiconductor device
whose resistance is temperature sensitive
 Increase in current through the device will raise its
temperature, causing a drop in its terminal resistance
 Materials employed in the manufacture of thermistors
include oxides of cobalt, nickel, strontium and manganese.
 3.12 – Photoconductive Cell
 A photoconductive cell is a two-terminal semiconductor whose
terminal resistance is determined by the intensity of the incident
light on its exposed surface
 As illumination increases in intensity, the energy state of the
surface electrons and atoms increases resulting in an increase
in the number of “free carriers”, and a corresponding drop in
resistance
 3.13 - Varistors
 Varistors are voltage-dependent, nonlinear resistors used to
suppress high-voltage transients
 Varistors can be used to limit the voltage that can appear
across the terminals of a sensitive device or system
APPLICATIONS
Electric Baseboard Heating Element
One of the most common applications of resistance is
in household fixtures such as toasters and baseboard
heating where the heat generated by current passing
through a resistive element is employed to perform a
useful function.
APPLICATIONS
Electric Baseboard Heating Element

FIG. 3.41 Electric baseboard: (a) 2-ft

section; (b) interior; (c) heating element; (d)
nichrome coil.
 APPLICATIONS
Strain Gauges
Any change in the shape of a structure can be
detected using strain gauges whose resistance
changes with applied stress or flex.

FIG. 3.43 Resistive strain

gauge.