Discrete Mathematics

Lecture 2
Logic of Quantified Statements
Alexander Bukharovich
New York University
 Predicates
• A predicate is a sentence that contains a
finite number of variables and becomes a
statement when specific values are
substituted for the variables
• The domain of a predicate variable is a set
of all values that may be substituted in place
of the variable
• P(x): x is a student at NYU
 Predicates
• If P(x) is a predicate and x has domain D, the truth
set of P(x) is the set of all elements in D that make
P(x) true when substituted for x. The truth set is
denoted as:
{x ∈ D | P(x)}
• Let P(x) and Q(x) be predicates with the common
domain D. P(x) ⇒ Q(x) means that every element
in the truth set of P(x) is in the truth set of Q(x).
P(x) ⇔ Q(x) means that P(x) and Q(x) have
identical truth sets
 Universal Quantifier
• Let P(x) be a predicate with domain D. A universal
statement is a statement in the form “∀x ∈ D,
P(x)”. It is true iff P(x) is true for every x from D.
It is false iff P(x) is false for at least one x from D.
A value of x form which P(x) is false is called a
counterexample to the universal statement
• Examples
– D = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}: ∀x ∈ D, x² >= x
∀x ∈ R, x² >= x
• Method of exhaustion
 Existential Quantifier
• Let P(x) be a predicate with domain D. An
existential statement is a statement in the
form “∃ x ∈ D, P(x)”. It is true iff P(x) is
true for at least one x from D. It is false iff
P(x) is false for every x from D.
• Examples:
∃ m ∈ Z, m² = m
– E = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, ∃ x ∈ E, m² = m
Universal Conditional Statement
• Universal conditional statement “∀x, if P(x)
then Q(x)”:
∀x R, if x > 2, then x2 > 4
• Empty domains: all pink elephants speak
Latin
• Universal conditional statement is called
vacuously true or true by default iff P(x) is
false for every x in D
 Negation of Quantified
Statements
• The negation of a universally quantified
statement ∀x ∈ D, P(x) is ∃ x ∈ D, ~P(x)
• The negation of an existentially quantified
statement ∃ x ∈ D, P(x) is ∀x ∈ D, ~P(x)
• The negation of a universal conditional
statement ∀x ∈ D, P(x)  Q(x) is ∃ x ∈ D,
P(x) ∧~Q(x)
 Exercises
• Write negations for each of the following statements:
– All dinosaurs are extinct
– No irrational numbers are integers
– Some exercises have answers
– All COBOL programs have at least 20 lines
– The sum of any two even integers is even
– The square of any even integer is even
• Let P(x) be some predicate defined for all real numbers x, let:
r = ∀x ∈ Z, P(x); s = ∀x ∈ Q, P(x); t = ∀x ∈ R, P(x)
– Find P(x) (but not x ∈ Z) so that r is true, but s and t are false
– Find P(x) so that both r and s are true, but t is false
 Multiply Quantified Statements
• For all positive numbers x, there exists number y
such that y < x
• There exists number x such that for all positive
numbers y, y < x
• For all people x there exists person y such that x
loves y
• There exists person x such that for all people y, x
loves y
• Definition of mathematical limit
Negation of Multiply Quantified
Statements
• The negation of ∀x, ∃ y, P(x, y)
is logically equivalent to ∃ x, ∀y, ~P(x, y)
• The negation of ∃ x, ∀y, P(x, y)
is logically equivalent to ∀x, ∃ y, ~P(x, y)
 Necessary and Sufficient
Conditions, Only If
∀ ∀x, r(x) is a sufficient condition for s(x)
means: ∀x, if r(x) then s(x)
∀ ∀x, r(x) is a necessary condition for s(x)
means: ∀x, if s(x) then r(x)
∀ ∀x, r(x) only if s(x) means: ∀x, if r(x) then
s(x)
 Prolog Programming Language
• Can use parts of logic as programming lang.
• Simple statements:
isabove(g, b), color(g, gray)
• Quantified statements:
if isabove(X, Y) and isabove(Y, Z) then
isabove(X, Z)
• Questions:
?color(b, blue), ?isabove(X, w)
 Exercises
• Rewrite ∃ !x ∈ D, P(x) without using the
symbol ∃ !
• Determine whether a pair of quantified
statements have the same truth values
∀x ∈ D, (P(x) ∧Q(x)) vs (∀x ∈ D, P(x)) ∧(∀x ∈ D, Q(x))
∃ x ∈ D, (P(x) ∧Q(x)) vs (∃ x ∈ D, P(x)) ∧(∃ x ∈ D, Q(x))
∀x ∈ D, (P(x) ∨Q(x)) vs (∀x ∈ D, P(x)) ∨(∀x ∈ D, Q(x))
∃ x ∈ D, (P(x) ∨Q(x)) vs (∃ x ∈ D, P(x)) ∨(∃ x ∈ D, Q(x))
 Arguments with Quantified
Statements
• Rule of universal instantiation: if some property is
true of everything in the domain, then this property
is true for any subset in the domain
• Universal Modus Ponens:
– Premises: (∀x, if P(x) then Q(x)); P(a) for some a
– Conclusion: Q(a)
• Universal Modus Tollens:
– Premises: (∀x, if P(x) then Q(x)); ~Q(a) for some a
– Conclusion: ~P(a)
• Converse and inverse errors
 Validity of Arguments using
Diagrams
• Premises: All human beings are mortal; Zeus is
not mortal. Conclusion: Zeus is not a human being
• Premises: All human beings are mortal; Felix is
mortal. Conclusion: Felix is a human being
• Premises: No polynomial functions have
horizontal asymptotes; This function has a
horizontal asymptote. Conclusion: This function is
not a polynomial
 Exercises
• Derive the rule of universal modus tollens
from the rule of universal modus ponens.