Chapter Five

Tools classification and

design of tools

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 TOOL-DESIGN METHODS

TOOLING: refers to the hardware necessary to produce a particular

component.
• Tooling consists of a vast type of cutting devices, jigs, fixtures,
dies, gauges, press tools, moulds etc. used in normal production.

• The common classification of types of tooling is as follows

(i) Cutting tools such as

(a) single point cutting tools
(b) Multi point cutting tools
(ii) Press Tools — Sheet metal press working dies for all types of
sheet metal fabrication
(iii) Dies for die casting, plastic molding, permanent molding, and
 Conti…

(iii) Forging dies for hot and cold forging

upsetting, extrusion, and cold finishing
(iv) Jigs and fixtures — for guiding the tool and
holding the work piece
(v) Gauges and measuring instruments
(vi) Tools for Joining and Casting
 Tool Materials
Introduction

The selection of cutting tool materials is the most important factors in

machining operations. Cutting tools are generally recommended. There is
no tool that fits exactly.
 In the selection of cutting tool materials, the followings should be bear
in mind:
Cutting tools are subject to high temperatures
High contact stresses
Rubbing along the tool-chip interface and machined surface

Cutting tool materials must possess the following characteristics:

-Hot Hardness: the cutting tool should maintain its hardness, strength and 4wear
INTRODUCTION COUNT..

Toughness and impact strength: Cutting tools must resist

the impact forces due to interrupted cutting (milling or some
turning operations) and forces due to vibration and chatter
without chipping or fracture.

Wear resistance: An acceptable tool life is obtained before

replacement is necessary.
-Chemical stability and inertness: Cutting tool is to avoid or
minimize any adverse reactions, adhesions and tool-chip
diffusion that would contribute to tool wear.
Thermal shock resistance: Cutting tools should withstand
the rapid temperature cycling in interrupted cutting. 5
 Introduction Count..
Tool Materials (also used for cutting tool, dies and moulds in
casting, forming, and shaping metallic and non metallic
materials) Are :
1. High-speed steels
2. Cast-cobalt alloys
3. Carbides
4. Coated tools
5. Alumina-based ceramics
6. Cubic boron nitride
7. Silicon-nitride-based ceramics
8. Diamond
9. Whisker-reinforced materials and Nano materials

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Introduction Count..

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Introduction Count..

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 High-speed Steels
 High-speed steel (HSS) tools were developed to machine at higher speeds
than was previously possible
 They can be hardened to various depths, have good wear resistance and are
inexpensive
 There are two basic types of high-speed steels: molybdenum (M-series) and
tungsten (T-series)
 Molybdenum (M-series): %10Mo, Cr, V ,W and Co
 -Tungsten (T-series): 12 to 18%W, Cr, V and Co
 M-series has higher abrasion resistance and less expensive. 95% HSS are M-
series.
 HSS are available in rolled, forged, cast, sintered (pm), coated, surface treated
 High-speed steel tools are available in wrought, cast and powder-metallurgy
(sintered) forms
 They can be coated for improved performance
 The major alloying elements in HSS are chromium, vanadium, tungsten,
cobalt, and molybdenum
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 Cast-cobalt Alloys
• Composition: 53% Co, 30-33% Cr, and 10-20 W
• Cast-cobalt alloys have high hardness, good wear
resistance and can maintain their hardness at elevated
temperatures
• They are not as tough as high-speed steels and are
sensitive to impact forces
• Less suitable than high-speed steels for interrupted
cutting operations.
• They are used for special operations, involving deep,
continuous roughing cuts at high feeds and speeds.

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 Carbides
Also known as cemented or sintered carbides
• They have the following characteristics:
1. High hardness over a wide range of temperatures
2. High elastic modulus
3. High thermal conductivity
4. Thermal expansion
5. Versatile
6. Cost-effective tool and die materials for a wide range of
applications

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 Tungsten Carbide
 Tungsten carbide (WC) consists of tungsten-carbide
particles bonded together in a cobalt matrix
 As the cobalt content increases, the strength, hardness,
and wear resistance of WC decrease
 Its toughness increases because of the higher toughness
of cobalt
Titanium Carbide
 Consists of a nickel–molybdenum matrix
 Has higher wear resistance than tungsten carbide but is
not as tough
 Suitable for machining hard materials and for cutting at
speeds higher than tungsten carbide

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 Carbides: Inserts
• High-speed steel tools are shaped for applications such
as drill bits and milling and gear cutters
• Inserts are individual cutting tools with several cutting
points
• Clamping is the preferred method of securing an insert
and insert has indexed (rotated in its holder) to make
another cutting point available

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 Coated Tools
New alloys and engineered materials are being developed to have high
strength and toughness, abrasive and chemically reactive with tool
materials
 Coatings have unique properties:
1. Lower friction
2. Higher adhesion
3. Higher resistance to wear and cracking
4. Acting as a diffusion barrier
5. Higher hot hardness and impact resistance.
 Coated tools can have lives 10 times longer than those of uncoated tools,
allowing for high cutting speeds and thus reducing both the time requiring
for machining operations and production costs.
 Coated tools are used in 40% to 80% of all machining operations (turning,
milling, drilling)
 Decreasing machining time also leads to decreasing machining cost.
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 Coated Tools:
Coating Materials and Coating Methods
• Common coating materials are:
1. Titanium nitride
2. Titanium carbide
3. Titanium carbon nitride
4. Aluminium oxide

Coatings are applied on cutting tools and inserts by two

techniques:
5. Chemical-vapor deposition (CVD)
6. Physical-vapor deposition (PVD)

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 Coated Tools:
Coating Materials and Coating Methods
 The CVD process is the most commonly used method for
carbide tools with multiphase and ceramic coatings.
 PVD-coated carbides with TiN coatings have higher cutting
edge strength, lower friction and lower tendency to form
built-up edge.
Coatings have the following characteristics:
1. High hardness
2. Chemical stability and inertness
3. Low thermal conductivity
4. Compatibility and good bonding
5. Little or no porosity
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 Coated Tools:
Coating Materials and Coating Methods
Titanium-nitride Coatings
• Have low friction coefficients, high hardness, resistance to
high temperature and good adhesion to the substrate
• Improve the life of high-speed steel tools ,carbide tools,
drill bits, and cutters
• Perform well at higher cutting speeds and feeds

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 Coated Tools:
Coating Materials and Coating Methods

Titanium-carbide Coatings
• Coatings have high flank-wear resistance in machining abrasive materials
Ceramic Coatings
• Coatings have low thermal conductivity, resistance to high temperature,
flank and crater wear
Multiphase Coatings
• Desirable properties of the coatings can be combined and optimized with
the use of multiphase coatings
• Coatings also available in alternating multiphase layers

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 Coated Tools:
Miscellaneous Coating Materials

 Titanium carbon nitride and titanium- aluminum nitride are

effective in cutting stainless steels
 Chromium carbide is effective in machining softer metals that
tend to adhere to the cutting tool
 More recent developments are nanolayer coatings and
composite coatings
Ion Implantation
 Ions are introduced into the surface of the cutting tool,
improving its surface properties
 Process does not change the dimensions of tools
 Nitrogen-ion implanted carbide tools have been used
successfully on alloy steels and stainless steels
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 Cubic Boron Nitride
 Cubic boron nitride is the hardest material available
 Carbide provides shock resistance, high wear resistance and
cutting-edge strength
 At elevated temperatures, it is chemically inert to iron and
nickel
 Its resistance to oxidation is high and suitable for cutting
hardened ferrous and high-temperature alloys

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 Silicon-nitride-based Ceramics
• Silicon-nitride (SiN) based ceramic tool materials consist of
silicon nitride with various additions of aluminium oxide,
yttrium oxide and titanium carbide
• Tools have high toughness, hot hardness and good thermal-
shock resistance
• Due to chemical affinity to iron at elevated temperature,
SiN-based tools are not suitable for machining steels

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 Diamond
 The hardest substance is diamond
 They have low friction, high wear resistance and the ability
to maintain a sharp cutting edge
 It is used when a good surface finish and dimensional
accuracy are required
 Synthetic or industrial diamonds are used as natural
diamond has flaws and performance can be unpredictable
 As diamond is brittle, tool shape and sharpness are
important

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 Whisker-reinforced Materials and Nano materials

There is continuous effort of improving the performance and

wear resistance of cutting tools
• In developing new tool materials, the followings are concerned:
1. High fracture toughness
2. Resistance to thermal shock
3. Cutting-edge strength
4. Creep resistance
5. Hot hardness
 The use of whiskers is for reinforcing fibres in composite
cutting tool materials
 Nano materials are also becoming important in advanced
cutting-tool materials
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 Tool Costs and Reconditioning of Tools

 Tool costs vary widely, depending on the tool material, size,

shape, chip breaker features and quality.
 Tooling costs in machining have been estimated to be on the order
of 2 to 4 % of the manufacturing costs.
 Cutting tools can be reconditioned by resharpening them, using
tool and cutter grinders with special fixtures.
 Reconditioning of coated tools is also done by recoating them.

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DESIGN OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

Design for Tool Geometry

• Factors to consider for tool angles
– The hardness of the metal
– Type of cutting operation
– Material and shape of the cutting tool
– The strength of the cutting edge
• The geometry of a cutting tool is determined by (3) factor
– Properties of the tool material
– Properties of the work piece
– Type of cutting operation 29
 Single Point Cutting Tool Design Count…
• The most important geometry’s to consider on a cutting tool
are
– Back Rake Angles
– End Relief Angles
– Side Relief Angles

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 Nomenclature of Single Point Cutting Tool
 

Symbol used in figure are :

αb – Back rake angle
αs – Side rake angle
θe – End relief angle
θs – Side relief angle
Ce – End cutting edge angle
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Cs – Side cutting edge angle
 Terminology Of Single cutting Tool
 Size It is determined by the width of shank, height of shank and
overall length.
 Shank - Shank is main body of a tool. It is held in a holder.
 Flank - Flank is the surface or surfaces below and adjacent to cutting
edge.
 Heel - Heel is intersection of the flank and base of the tool.
 Base - Base is the bottom part of the shank. It takes the tangential
force of cutting.
 Face - Face is surface of tool on which chip impinges when separated from work
piece.
 Cutting Edge - Cutting edge is the edge of that face which separates chip from the
work piece.
 The tool cutting edge consists of side cutting edge, the nose and end cutting edge.
 Tool Point - That part of tool, which is shaped to produce the cutting edge and the
face.
 The Nose - It is the intersection of side cutting edge and end cutting edge.
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 Terminology Of Single cutting Tool

Side Cutting Edge Angle

The angle between side cutting edge and side of the tool shank is called side cutting
edge angle. It is also called as lead angle or principle cutting angle.
End Cutting Edge Angle
• The angle between the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the shank of
tool is called end cutting edge angle.

Side Relief Angle

• The angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the side
cutting edge and line perpendicular to the base of tool measured at right angles to
the side flank is known as side relief angle. It is the angle that prevents
interference, as the tool enters the work material.

End Relief Angle

• End relief angle is the angle between the portion of the end flank immediately
below the end cutting edge and the line perpendicular to the base of tool,
measured at right angles to end flank. It is the angle that allows the tool to cut
without rubbing on the work piece. 33
 Terminology Of Single cutting Tool

Back Rake Angle

• The angle between face of the tool and a line parallel with the

base of the tool, measured in a perpendicular plane through

the side cutting edge is called back rake angle. It is the angle

which measures the slope of the face of the tool from the nose

toward the rear. If the slope is downward toward the nose, it is

negative back rake angle. And if the slope is downward from

the nose, it is positive back rake angle. If there is not any slope,

back rake angle is zero.

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 Side Rake Angle

• The angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel with the base of the

tool, measured in a plane perpendicular to the base and side cutting edge is

called side rake angle. It is the angle that measures the slope of the tool face

from cutting edge. If the slope is towards the cutting edge, it is negative side

rake angle. If the slope is away from the cutting edge, it is positive side rake

angle.

• All the tool angles are taken with reference to the cutting edge and are,

therefore, normal to the cutting edge. A convenient way to specify tool angle is

by use of a standardized abbreviated system called tool signature.

• Sometimes it is also called as tool character. Tool signature also describes how

the tool is positioned in relation to the work piece.

 Terminology Of Single cutting Tool
The signature for single point tool is listed in the order as rake angles (back and
side), relief angles (end and side), cutting edge angles (end and side) and nose
radius.
Example
Tool signature of High speed steel tool: 0-7-7-7-15-15-0.5
Solution
This implies that HSS tool has

Back rake angle = 0°,

Side rake angle = 7°,
End relief angle = 7°,
Side relief angle = 7°,
End cutting edge angle = 15°,
Side cutting edge angle = 15°, and
Nose radius = 0.5 mm.
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 INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS ANGLES ON TOOL DESIGN

Rake Angles
• Back-Allows the tool to shear the work and form the chip. It can be positive or negative
– Positive = reduced cutting forces, limited deflection of work, tool holder, and machine
– Negative = typically used to machine harder metals-heavy cuts
The side and back rake angle combine to from the “true rake angle”
• Small to medium rake angles cause:
– high compression
– high tool forces
– high friction
– result = Thick—highly deformed—hot chips
• Larger positive rake angles
– Reduce compression and less chance of a discontinuous chip
– Reduce forces
– Reduce friction
– Result = A thinner, less deformed, and cooler chip.
• Problems….as we increase the angle:
– Reduce strength of tool
– Reduce the capacity of the tool to conduct heat away from the cutting edge.
– To increase the strength of the tool and allow it to conduct heat better, in some tools, zero
to negative rake angles are used. 37
 INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS ANGLES ON TOOL DESIGN

Negative Rake Tools

• Typical tool materials which utilize negative rakes are:
• Carbide
• Diamonds
• Ceramics
• These materials tend to be much more brittle than HSS
but they hold superior hardness at high temperatures.
• The negative rake angles transfer the cutting forces to
the tool which help to provide added support to the
cutting edge.

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 INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS ANGLES ON TOOL DESIGN

Positive vs. Negative Rake Angles

• Positive rake angles
– Reduced cutting forces
– Smaller deflection of work, tool holder, and machine
– Considered by some to be the most efficient way to cut metal
– Creates large shear angle, reduced friction and heat
– Allows chip to move freely up the chip-tool zone
– Generally used for continuous cuts on ductile materials which
are not to hard or brittle
• Negative rake angles
– Initial shock of work to tool is on the face of the tool and not
on the point or edge. This prolongs the life of the tool.
– Higher cutting speeds/feeds can be employed 39
 INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS ANGLES ON TOOL DESIGN
Relief Angle
The main significance of relief angle is that it prevents rubbing action
below cutting edge. Small relief angle gives maximum support below the
cutting edge and is necessary while machining hard and strong work piece.
Too much relief angle weakens the cutting edge and failure of tool may
takes place. Relief angles generally lie between 5° to 15°.
Side Cutting Edge Angle
 It may vary from 0 to 90°. On increasing side cutting edge angle, the full
length of cutting edge is not in contact with work piece when the tool enters
the cut.
 The tool takes a little shock load and gradually reaches the full depth of cut
without any impact.
 If side cutting edge angle is 0°, the full length of cutting edge is in touch
with work piece at once and produces severe initial shock.
 If side cutting edge angle is less, forces on tool will reduce as a result of
which less power consumption occur.
 Also with increase in side cutting edge angle, surface finish increases. 40
 INFLUENCE OF VARIOUS ANGLES ON TOOL DESIGN

End Cutting Edge Angle

 End cutting edge angle vary from 4° to 30°.
 End cutting edge angle prevents rubbing between the end of the tool and
the work piece.
 If end cutting edge angle is less, it will cause vibration because of
excessive tool contact with work piece. With end cutting edge angle,
surface finish decreases.
Nose Radius
Nose radius is provided to increase strength of tip of the tool. This is done
by thinning the chip where it approaches tip of tool and by enlarging the
chip over a larger area of the point.
If the radius is more, the surface finish will be good. But due to too large
nose radius, contact between tool and work piece increases, which in turn
increase friction.
Thus, power consumption increases, along with increase in vibration and
chatter occurs.
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 Design of Single Point Tool
• The design of the single point tool from the point of view of
the strength and rigidity is detailed here.

• In analyzing the forces on a single point cutting tool in

turning, it is possible to measure the three components of
the cutting forces P x, Py, and Pz representing the feed
force, radial force and tangential force respectively.

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• Px is the axial component of the cutting force; the strength of
longitudinal feed mechanisms and bending moment to the shank are
calculated by this force.
• Py determines the tool holding force and deflection of the work
piece which is either supported b/n centers or held otherwise;
strength of the mechanism of traverse feed of the machine is
calculated by this force.
Pz governs the horse power consumption of the machine; in
account of it the strength of main gear box parts and the strength of a
tool are calculated.
• Empirically, Pz = Cv * tx * Sy * K
• Where Cv = Coefficient characterized by the work tool material and
the condition of working.
tx = depth of cut in mm.
Sy = feed in mm/rev

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• K = Overall correction coefficient dependent on
condition of working, approach angle of the tool,
rake angle of the tool , material of work-tool
combination.

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THANK YOU