Unit – V &VI

Graph theory
Representation of Graphs

Graph G
(V, E, )
V Set of vertices
E Set of edges
 Function that assigns vertices {v, w} to each edge
(e) = {v, w}
e Edge between vertices v and w

Example 1:
V = {1, 2, 3, 4}
E = {e1, e2, e3, e4, e5}
(e1) = {1, 2}
(e2) = {4, 3}
(e3) = {1, 3}
(e4) = {2, 4}
(e5) = {2, 1}

1 2

4 3
Degree of a vertex
No. of edges at a vertex
Loop
Edge from a vertex to itself
Degree is 2
Example 2:

1
2

3
4

Vertex Degree
1 3
2 3
3 4
4 2
 Vertex with degree 0
Adjacent vertices
Pair of vertices that determine an edge
Path π in a graph G
Pair (Vπ , Eπ) of sequences
Vπ : v1, v2, … , vk Vertex sequence
Eπ: e1, e2, ..., ek – 1 Edge
sequence

Each successive pair vi, vi+1 of vertices is adjacent

in G
Edge ei has vi and vi+1 as endpoints
No edge occurs more than once in the edge
sequence

Circuit
Path that begins and ends at the same vertex.
Simple path
No vertex appears more than once in the vertex
sequence
Simple circuit
v1 = vk
 Connected graph
Path from any vertex to any other
vertex
Example:

Connected Graph
Disconnected graph
Not connected graph
Components of the graph
Various connected pieces in the disconnected graph
Example:
2 5

3 4

1 6

Disconnected Graph having 2 components

Adjacency Matrix representation of graphs
Examples
1. Give adjacency matrix representation for the graph G given below:

2
1

4
3
Adjacency Matrix representation for the graph G

1 2 3 4
1 0 1 1 0
2 1 0 01
3 0 0 0 1
4 0 0 00
 A tree is a simple graph G such that there is a unique simple path
between each pair of vertices.
 A rooted tree is a tree in which there is one designated vertex,
called a root.
 A rooted tree is a directed tree if there is a root from which there is a
directed path to each vertex.
 The level of a vertex v in a rooted tree is the length of the path to v
from the root.
 A tree T with only one vertex is called a trivial tree; otherwise T is
nontrivial tree.
 If a graph G is connected and e is an edge such that G-e is not
connected , then e is said to be a bridge or a cut edge. If v is a
vertex of G such that G-v is not connected ,then v is a cut vertex.
Theorems
 A simple nondirected graph G is a tree iff G is connected and
contains no cycles.
 In every nontrivial tree there is at least one vertex of degree 1.
 A tree with n vertices has exactly n-1 edges.
 If G is a nontrivial tree then G contains at least 2 vertices of degree
1.
 If 2 nonadjacent vertices of a tree T are connected by adding an
edge , then the resulting graph will contain a cycle.


A graph G is a tree if and only if G has no cycles and |E| = |V| - 1.
 In general, if G is a connected graph with n vertices and m edges, a
spanning tree of G must have n – 1 edges.
 Hence, the number of edges must be removed before a spanning
tree is obtained must be m-(n-1)=m-n+1.
 This number is frequently called the circuit rank of G.
 Theorem: A nondirected graph G s connected if and only if G
contains a spanning tree. If we successively delete edges of cycles
until no further cycles remain, then the result s a spanning tree of G
Planar Graphs:
A planar graph is a graph G that can be drawn on a plane without
crossovers. Otherwise G is said to be non planar.
(or)
A graph which can be represented by at least on plane drawing in
which the edges meet only at the vertices

Plane Graph:
If a planar graph is drawn in the plane so that no two edges cross
over.

Note:
1. Order means no. of nodes in the graph.
2. Size means no. of edges in the graph
Exercises
1. Derive all possible spanning trees for the graph shown below.

2. Derive all possible spanning trees for the graph shown below

3. For the graph below, give all spanning trees.

4. For the graph below, how many different spanning trees are there?

5. Find DFS and BFS spanning trees for the graph given below.
 Q
A B P

D C S R

Fig: X Fig: Y

No. of vertices : In X = 4 and in Y = 4

No. of Edges : In X = 6 and in Y = 6

Degrees of the vertices are as follows:

Degree X Y
0 0 0
1 0 0
2 0 0
3 4 4
4 0 0
one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of the graphs X and y are as
follows:

A ↔ P, B ↔ Q , C ↔ R , D ↔ S

Similarly one-to-one correspondence between the edges of the graphs X and y are
as follows:

{A,B} ↔ {P,Q},
{B,C} ↔ {Q,R},
{C,D} ↔ {R,S},
{D,A} ↔ {S,P},
{A,C} ↔ {P,R},
{B,D} ↔ {Q,S}
 A A1

B C B1 C1

Fig: X Fig: Y

No. of vertices : In X = 3 and in Y = 3

No. of Edges : In X = 3 and in Y = 2

Degrees of the vertices are as follows:

Degree X Y
0 0 0
1 0 2
2 3 1
3 0 0
4 0 0
 D D1
A A 1

B C B1 C1
Fig: X Fig: Y

No. of vertices : In X = 4 and in Y = 4

No. of Edges : In X = 3 and in Y = 3

Degrees of the vertices are as follows:

Degree X Y
0 0 0
1 2 3
2 2 0
3 0 1
4 0 0
 A B P Q

D C S R
Fig: X Fig: Y

one-to-one correspondence between the vertices of the graphs X and y are

as follows:

A ↔ P, B ↔ R , C ↔ Q , D ↔ S

Similarly one-to-one correspondence between the edges of the graphs X and y are
as follows:

{A,C} ↔ {P,Q},
{B,C} ↔ {Q,R},
{B,D} ↔ {R,S},
{D,A} ↔ {S,P},
Null / Discrete graph
Nn
Graph with n vertices and no edges
Disconnected
Exactly n components.

Examples:

N2 N4

Complete graph
Kn
An edge {vi, vj} for every i and j
Every vertex is connected to every other
vertex
Euler Circuit and Euler Trails:
consider a graph G, and if there is a circuit in G that contains all the edges of
G, then that circuit is called Euler Circuit

(Circuit
Path that begins and ends at the same vertex.
in a circuit no edge can appear more than once but the vertex can appear
more than once)

A connected graph that contains a Euler circuit is called Euler Graph

Example:
A e4 B
e5
e1 e3
e7

C e2 D e6 E

The following walk is Euler circuit:

A e1 C e2 D e3 A e4 B e5 D e6 E e7 A
Euler Trails:

if there is a trail in G that contains all the edges of G, then that trail is called
Euler trail.

e1 e4
e5

B C
e2 D e3

The following is the trail in the graph:

A e1 B e2 D e3 C e4 A e5 D
Note:
1. If a graph G has a vertex of odd degree, there can be no Euler circuit in G.
2. If G is connected and has exactly two vertices of odd degree, there is an
Euler path in G but not Euler circuit.
Any Euler path in G must begin at one vertex of odd degree and end at the

other.
3. If a graph G has more than two vertices of odd degree, then there can be
no Euler path in G.
The graph has exactly two vertices of odd degree.
Hence there is no Euler circuit, but there must be an Euler path.
 A B
1)

C
E D

A B

C
E D
2) A B C

I K D
J

H G F E

A B C

I K D
J

H G F E
 A

F B

E D C

F B

E D C
 A
A

F B
F B

C
E C
E

D
D
Hamilton cycles and Hamilton paths:

Let G be a connected graph, if there is a cycle in G that contains all vertices of

G, then that cycle is called a Hamilton cycle in G

1. Each vertex must be visited only once except the first (starting) for cycle
2. A Hamilton cycle in a graph of n vertices consists of exactly n edges
3. Hamilton cycle may not include all edges of a graph

A graph that contains a Hamilton cycle is called a Hamilton graph

A path in a connected graph which includes every vertex of the graph is called
Hamilton path.
A B

D C

In the above graph, the cycle is shown in thick lines is Hamilton cycle

A B

D C

In the above graph, the path shown in thick lines is Hamilton path
 A B C

D E F

G I
H

In the above graph the Hamilton path is ABCFEDGHI. And there is no Hamilton
Cycle as shown below

A B C

E F
D

G I
H
Graph Coloring and Chromatic Numbers:

Graph coloring:
For a given graph G, if we assign colors to its vertices in such a way that no two
adjacent vertices have the same color, then the graph is called properly
colored graph.

Note:
1. A graph can have more than one proper coloring
2. Two non-adjacent vertices in a properly colored graph can have the same color

G B
B

R G R
B R R

G G Y

B B
R

Fig: 1 Fig: 2 Fig: 3

Chromatic Numbers:

The chromatic number of a graph is the minimum number of colors with which
the graph can be properly colored

OR

A graph G is said to be k-colorable if we can properly color it with k colors

A graph G which is k-colorable but not (k-1) colorable is called a k-chromatic
graph
A k-chromatic graph is a graph that can be properly colored with k colors but
not with less than k colors

If a graph G is k-chromatic, then k is called the chromatic number of G

Trees

A tree is a simple graph G such that there is a unique simple nondirected

path between each pair of vertices of G.

A rooted tree is a tree in which there is one designated vertex, called a root

A rooted tree is a directed tree if there is a root from which there is a directed
path to each vertex.

The level of a vertex v in a rooted tree is the length of the path to v from the
root.

A tree T with only one vertex is called a trivial tree ; otherwise T is a nontrivial
tree.
Trees

If a graph G is connected and e is an edge such that G-e is not connected,

then e is said to be a bridge or a cut edge

If v is a vertex of G such that G-v is not connected , then v is a cut vertex.

Theorems:

1.A simple nondirected graph G is a tree iff G is connected and contains no

cycles.
2.In every non trivial tree there is at least one vertex of degree 1.
3.A tree with n vertices has exactly n-1 edges.
4.If 2 non adjacent vertices of a tree T are connected by adding an edge, then
the resulting graph will contain a cycle.
5.A graph G is a tree if and only if G has no cycles and |E| = |V| - 1.
Spanning Trees

A sub graph H of a graph G is called a spanning tree of G if

1.H is a tree and
2.H contains all the vertices of G.

A spanning tree that is a directed tree is called a directed spanning tree of G.

In general, if G is a connected graph with n vertices and m edges, a spanning

tree of G must have n-1 edges.

Theorems:

1.A nondirected graph G is connected if and only if G contains a spanning

tree. Indeed, if we successively delete edges of cycles until no further cycles
remain, then the result is a spanning tree of G.
 BFS: visit all vertices sequentially on a given level before going onto
the next level.
The edges that are added in the bfs are called tree edges, and
rejected edges called the cross edges.
 DFS: proceeds successively to higher levels at the first opportunity.
Rejected edge called the back edge.
In general, dfs terminates when the search returns to the root
and all vertices have been visited.
Depth First Search (DFS) algorithm:

1.Assign the first vertex v1 to the variable v and initialize T as

the tree consisting of this vertex as the root.

2. Select the smallest subscript k for 2 ≤ k ≤ n, such that {v, vk}  E

and vk has not already been included in T.
If no such subscript is found then go to step 3, otherwise
perform the following:
a. Attach the edge {v, vk} to T.
b. Assign vk to v.
c. Repeat step 2.

3. If v = v1, the tree T is the spanning tree for the order specified.

4. For v ≠ v1, backtrack from v. If u is the parent of the vertex assigned

to v in T, then assign u to v and repeat step 2.
 v
v v
v1 v2 v1 v2 v
v3 v3v
v
v6 v6 vv
v7 v7 v
v4 v4
v
v5 v5 v
v8 v v8
Breadth First Search (BFS) algorithm

1. Assign the first vertex v1 and insert this vertex in the queue Q
and initialise T as the tree consisting of this vertex as the root.

2. Delete v from the front of Q. When v is deleted, consider vk for each 2

≤ k ≤ n. If the edge {v, vk}  E and vk has not been visited previously,
attach this edge to T. If we examine all of the vertices previously
visited and obtain no new edge, the tree T is the desired spanning
tree.

3. Insert the vertices adjacent to each v at the rear of the queue Q,

according to the order in which they are (first) visited. Repeat step 2.
 v1 v2
v1 v2
v3
v3
v6
v7 v6
v4 v7
v4
v5
v5
v8
v8
Planar Graphs:
A planar graph is a graph G that can be drawn on a plane without
crossovers. Otherwise G is said to be non planar.
(or)
A graph which can be represented by at least on plane drawing in
which the edges meet only at the vertices

Plane Graph:
If a planar graph is drawn in the plane so that no two edges cross
over.

Note:
1. Order means no. of nodes in the graph.
2. Size means no. of edges in the graph
Euler’s formula for connected plane graph
If G is a connected plane graph, then |V| – |E| +|R| = 2.
where
V No. of vertices
E No. of edges
R No. of regions
Proof (by mathematical induction):
Assume that Connected plane graph G has k + 1 regions, where k ≥ 1.
Delete an edge common to the boundary of two separate regions.
 The resulting graph G’ has the same no. of vertices, one fewer edge
and also one fewer region as two previous regions have been
consolidated by the removal of the edge.
 No. of vertices in G’ = |V’| = |V|.
 No. of edges in G’ = |E’| = |E| – 1.
 No. of regions in G’ = |R’| = |R| – 1.
But |V| – |E| + |R| = |V’| – |E’| + |R’|.
|V’| – |E’| + |R’| = 2, by inductive hypothesis.
 |V| – |E| +|R| = 2.
Dual of a plane graph
 Corresponding to each region r of G there is a vertex r* of G*, and
corresponding to each edge e of G there is an edge e* of G*; two
vertices r* and s* are joined by the edge e* in G* iff their
corresponding regions r and s are separated by the edge e in G.
 A loop is added at a vertex r* of G* for each cut–edge of G that
belongs to the boundary of the region r.
Dual of a plane graph
 Corresponding to each region r of G there is a vertex r* of G*, and
corresponding to each edge e of G there is an edge e* of G*; two
vertices r* and s* are joined by the edge e* in G* iff their
corresponding regions r and s are separated by the edge e in G.
 A loop is added at a vertex r* of G* for each cut–edge of G that
belongs to the boundary of the region r.