UNIT II

ELECTRICAL MACHINES
 D.C. GENERATORS-CONSTRUCTION & OPERATION

• DC Generators
• Principle of operation
• Action of Commutator
• Constructional details of DC Machine
• Types of DC generators
• EMF Equation
DC Generator
DC motor
 D.C. GENERATORS PRINCIPLE OF
OPERATION

 DC generator converts mechanical energy into electrical

energy. when a conductor move in a magnetic field in such
a way conductors cuts across a magnetic flux of lines and
e.m.f. produces in a generator and it is defined by faradays
law of electromagnetic induction e.m.f. causes current to
flow if the conductor circuit is closed.
First Law :
  Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit
changes, an e.m.f. is always induced in it. 
                                        or
  Whenever a conductor cuts magnetic flux, an e.m.f. is
induced in that conductor. 
Second Law :
  The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is equal to the
rate of change of flux linkages.
Faradays Law of Electromagnetic Induction

A changing magnetic flux through a  loop

or loops of wire induces an electromotive
force (voltage) in each loop.
Lenz’s Law

“The induced currents in a conductor are in such a

direction as to oppose the change in magnetic field
that produces them..”
OR
“The direction of induced E.M.F in a coil
(conductor) is such that it opposes the cause of
producing it..”
Fleming's Right Hand Rule

E.M.F

• The Thumb represents the direction of Motion of the conductor.

• The First finger (four finger) represents Field.

• The Second finger (Middle finger) represents Current
Fleming's Right Hand Rule
 The following are the basic requirements to be
satisfied for generation of E.M.F

1.A uniform Magnetic field

2.A System of conductors
3.Relative motion between the magnetic field and conductors

• Magnetic field :-
Permanent Magnet
(or)
Electro Magnet (practical)
• Conductor :- Copper (or) Aluminum bars placed in
slots cut around the periphery of cylindrical rotor
• Relative motion:-
By Prime Mover
Turbine
I.C Engine (Internal combustion)
Simple loop generator
Basic Generator
Generators
Simple loop generator
with slip ring
 Generators

Basic operation of the generator

As the loop rotates, the magnetic
flux through it changes with time
This induces an e.m.f and a current
in the external circuit
The ends of the loop are connected
to slip rings that rotate with the loop
Connections to the external circuit
are made by stationary brushes in
contact with the slip rings
Simple loop generator
with split ring
Simple loop generator
with split ring
 Working Principle of D.C Generator

Schematic diagram of a simple DC Generator

1st half cycle(00 to 1800 ) Path of current ABR1B1MLR2B2CD
2st half cycle(1800 to 3600) Path of current DCR2B1MLB2R1BA
 DC Generators, cont
• The output voltage always
has the same polarity
• The current is a pulsating
current
• To produce a steady
current, many loops and
commutators around the
axis of rotation are used
– The multiple outputs are
superimposed and the
output is almost free of
fluctuations
Unidirectional current wave shape

Resultant current wave shape when number of

conductors used result current wave shape
 Constructional Details Of DC Machine

 Yoke:
 Rotor: 
 Stator: 
 Field electromagnets: 
 Pole core and pole shoe:
 Brushes:
 Shaft:
 Armature: 
 Coil: 
 Commutator:
 Bearings:
 Construction details of DC generator
Cross section view of dc machine

shaft

S
Main parts of a 4-pole d. c machine
Practical Dc Machine
 1)Yoke
1)Yoke:-
- Acts as frame of the machine
- Mechanical support
- low reluctance for magnetic flux
- High Permeability
-- For Small machines -- Cast iron—low cost
-- For Large Machines -- Cast Steel (Rolled steel)

Large DC machine Small DC machine

 2)pole cores and pole shoes
2)Field Magnets:-
a) Pole core (Pole body) :- --Carry the field coils
--Rectangle Cross sections
-- Laminated to reduce heat losses
--Fitted to yoke through bolts
b) Pole shoe:- Acts as support to field poles
and spreads out flux
Pole core & Pole shoe are laminated of annealed steel
(Of thickness of 1mm to 0.25 mm)
 2)pole cores and pole shoes
2)Field Magnets:-
c) Field coils (Magnetizing coils):- -- Provide excitation
(exciting coils) I . e field flux
--Number of poles depends speed of armature on and the
output for which the machine designed
--Frame to used for design for exciting coils
Different types of fields
i) Separately Exciting
ii) Self Exciting
3)Armature core
3)Conductor system:-
a) Armature core (Armature):-
-- To support armature windings
--To rotate conductors in a magnetic field
-- it is cylindrical or drum shaped is built
--Made of high permeability silicon steel

stampings (of 0.5 mm thick)

-- Each stamping is separated from its
neighboring one by thin varnish as insulation
--Laminated to reduce eddy current losses
-- A small air gap between pole pieces and
armature so that no rubbing between them
-- High grade silicon steel used to reduce
i) Hysteresis loss
ii) Eddy current loss
-- Ventilating ducts are provided to dissipate
heat to dissipate heat generated by above losses

b) Armature Winding:-
Main flux cuts armature and hence E.M.F is induced
--winding made of Copper (or) Aluminum
--windings are insulated each other
 4)commutator
4) Commutator:--Hard drawn copper bars segments insulated from each
other by mica segments (insulation)
-- Between armature & External circuit
-- Split-Rings (acts like Rectifier AC to DC )
 5&6 Bearings
5)Brushes and brush gear:-
and Brushes
Carbon, Carbon graphite, copper used to Collects current
from commutation (in case of Generator)

6)Shaft and bearings:-

Shaft-- Mechanical link between prime over and armature
Bearings– For free rotation
DC Machine Construction
DC Machine Construction

Rotor of a dc machine
DC Machine Construction

Cutaway view of a dc machine

 Armature Winding

Armature Winding is classified into two types:

 Lap winding

 Wave windings
Armature windings
Lap Winding:

 are used in machines designed for low voltage and high current

armatures are constructed with large wire because of high current

Eg: - are used is in the starter motor of almost all automobiles

The windings of a lap wound armature are connected in parallel. This

permits the current capacity of each winding to be added and provides a
higher operating current.

No of parallel path, A=P ; P = no. of poles

Wave winding:

 are used in machines designed for high voltage and low current

 their windings connected in series

 When the windings are connected in series, the voltage of each

winding adds, but the current capacity remains the same
 are used is in the small generator.

 No of parallel path, A=2,

 Commutation process in D.C Generator

 Commutation is the positioning of the DC generator brushes so that the

commutator segments change brushes at the same time the armature current
changes direction.
Generated EMF or EMF Equation of a generator

Let  = flux/pole in Weber

Z =Total number of armature conductors
=No. of slot × No. of conductors/slot
P= No. of generator poles
A =No. of parallel paths in armature
N= Armature rotation in revolutions per minute (r. p. m)
E= e.m.f induced in any parallel path in armature
Generated e.m.f Eg= e.m.f generated in any one of the parallel
paths i.e E
Average e.m.f generated/conductor = d  volt
dt
Now, flux cut/conductor in one revolution d  = P wb
 No. of revolutions/sec=N/ 60
Time for one revolution , dt= 60 /N sec
According to Faraday’s Law of electro magnetic induction
E.M.F generated/conductor = d= PN volts
dt 60
No. of conductors (in series) in one parallel path= Z / A

E.M.F generated/path=  PN × Z Volts

60 A
Generate E.M.F, Eg= Z N × P Volts
60 A
For
i) Wave winding A = 2
ii) Lap winding A = P
 Generators

D.C Generators A.C Generators

(Alternators)

Cummulatitave differentially Cummulatitave differentially

 Types of Generators
1)Separately excited generators

2)Self excited generators

i) shunt wound
ii) series wound
iii) compound wound
a) long shunt
b) short shunt
Clasifications of Generators
Separately excited generators

G VL

Ia=IL
E=Vt+ IaRa +BCD
shunt wound
L

VL
G
 series wound

G VL
 compound wound
long shunt short shunt
L L

VL
G G VL

L
L
 The Practical DC Generator

 The actual construction and operation of a

practical dc generator differs somewhat
from our elementary generators
 Nearly all practical generators use
electromagnetic poles instead of the
permanent magnets used in our elementary
generator
 The main advantages of using
electromagnetic poles are:
 (1) increased field strength and
 (2) possible to control the strength of
the fields. By varying the input
voltage, the field strength is varied.
By varying the field strength, the output
voltage of the generator can be
controlled.

Four-pole generator (without armature)

 D.C. Generator Characteristics

The following are the three most important

characteristics in a D.C. generator:

1. Open Circuit Characteristics (Eo/IF)

2. Internal Characteristics (E/Ia)
3. External Characteristics (V/Ia)
 Critical Resistance for shunt Generator

Critical field resistance is a term that is associated with a DC Shunt generator. The
value of resistance of shunt field winding beyond which the self generator fails to
build up its voltage is known as " critical resistance
at a given speed it is the maximum field resistance with which the shunt generator
excite. Shunt generator will build up voltage only if field circuit resistance is less
than critical field resistance.
 How to Draw O.C.C. at Different Speeds?
If we are given O.C.C. of a generator at a constant speed N 1 then we can easily
draw the O.C.C. at any other constant speed N2.Fig (3.11) illustrates the
procedure. Here we are given O.C.C. at a constant speed N1.It is desired to find
the O.C.C. at constant speed N2 (it is assumed that n1 < N2)For constant
excitation, E α N.
E2/E1=N2/N1
As shown in Fig. (3.11), for If = OH, E1 = HC. Therefore, the new value of e.m.f. (E2)
for the same If but at N2i.
E2=HC ×( N2/N1) = HD
 Critical Speed (NC)
The critical speed of a shunt generator is the minimum speed below which it fails to
excite.
Therefore , Speed α Critical resistance
In order to find critical speed, take any convenient point C on excitation
axis and erect a perpendicular so as to cut Rsh and R’sh lines at points B and
A respectively. Then,
BC/AC =NC/N
or NC = N ×(BC/AC)
 Conditions for Voltage Build-Up of a Shunt
Generator
The necessary conditions for voltage build-up in a shunt generator are:

(i) There must be some residual magnetism in generator poles.

(ii) The connections of the field winding should be such that the field current
strengthens the residual magnetism.

(iii) The resistance of the field circuit should be less than the critical resistance. In
other words, the speed of the generator should be higher than the critical
speed.
Open circuit characteristics of Separately Excited D.C.
Generator
Internal and External Characteristics
Characteristics of Shunt Generator
Characteristics of Series Generator
Compound Generator Characteristics
 Armature Reaction
 The effect of magnetic field set up by armature
current on the distribution of flux under main poles
of a generator. The armature magnetic field has two
effects:
(i) It demagnetizes or weakens the main flux

(ii) It cross-magnetizes or distorts.

 Commutation
 It is the process of converting A.C generated voltage
in the armature conductors to D.C for external load.
Commutation process in interpoles
in DC machine
 Applications of D.C Generators
Separately excited generators

i) These are used for speed control of D.C motors over a large range.
ii) These are used in areas where a wide range of terminal voltage is required

Self excited generators

i) shunt generators :-
i) These are used as exciters for exciting the field of synchronous machines and
separately excited D.C generators
ii) These are used for battery charging because it’s terminal voltage are almost constant or
can be kept constant.
iii) Commonly used in ordinary lighting purposes and power supply purposes.
 ii) series generators:-
i) These are used for series arc lighting
ii) Series incandescent lighting
iii) As a series booster for increasing the voltage across the feeder to
compensate the resistance drop of the line. because of their rising characteristic.
iv) Special purposes such as supplying the field current for regenerative
breaking of D.C locomotives (railway service).
v) Constant current for welding.

iii) compound generators:-

i) Compound generators are used where constant terminal voltages have to be
maintained for different loading conditions.
ii) Cumulatively compound generators:-These are for domestic lighting
purposes and to transmit energy over long distance and for heavy power service such as
electric railways.
iii) Differential compound generator:- The use of this type of generators is very
rare and it is used for special application like arc welding.
Total losses in a D.C Machine
Armature windings
Armature windings
Total losses in a D.C Machine
The total losses in a dc machine are
1.Cu losses
2.Iron losses
3.Mechanical losses
Cupper losses are mainly due to the current passing through the
winding. 1.Armature cu losses (30 to 40% of full load losses)
Cu losses 2.Shunt field cu losses(20 to30% of full load losses)
3.Series field cu losses
Armature cu losses=Ia2 Ra
Ra=Armature resistance
Ia= Armature current
--Losses due to brush contact resistance is usually include in
armature cu losses
Shunt field cu losses=Ish2Rsh
Rsh=Shunt field resistance
Ish=Shunt field current
Series field cu losses=Ise2Rse
Rse=Series field resistance
Iron losses (Magnetic losses) (20 to 30% of full load losses)
1)Hysteresis losses
2)Eddy current losses

Hysteresis losses (Wh):-

The losses is due to the reversal of magnetisation of the armature core
Every portion of the rating core passes under N and S poles alternately. There by attaining
S and N polarity respectively. The core undergoes one complete cycle of magnetic
reversal after passing under one pair of poles.
P=No. of poles
N= Armature speed in rpm
frequency of magnetic reversals
f=NP
120
The losses depends upon the volume and B max and frequency of reversals.
Hysteresis losses is given by steinmetz formula
Wh=η B1.6maxf V wats
V=Volume of the core in m3
η= Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient
Eddy current losses:-(We)
when the armature core rotates, it cuts the magenetic flux hence an
e.m.f induced in in the body of the core according to faradays law of
electro magnetic induction. This e. m.f through small sets up large current
in the body of the core due to its mall resistance. This current is known as
“Eddy Current”
-These core laminations are insulated from each other by a thin coating of
varnish. Due to the core body being one continuous solid iron piece (fig a)
The magnitude of eddy current is large. As armature cross sectional area is
large it’s resistance is small. hence eddy current losses is large.
In (fig b) The same core has been split up in to thin cross section has very
high resistance, hence magnitude of eddy currents is reduced
considerably there by reducing eddy current losses.
We=k B2 maxf2t2v2 watts
Bmax=maximum flux densities
f=Freequency of the magenetic reversals
v=volume of the armaturecore
t=Thick ness of lamination
we∞t2 hence t should be kept as small as posible.
Eddy current losses is reduced by laminated core but hysteresis losses can
not be reduced by this way.
Mechanical losses ( 10 to 20% of full load losses)
1.Friction losses
2.Windage losses

Friction losses:-
Frictional losses due to bearings

Windage losses:- Windage losses due to air gap between armature

and pole shoe
Stray losses(Rotational losses):-
magnetic losses and mechanical losses are collectively known as stray losses
Losses are classified in to two types:-
i) Constant losses (standing losses)(W c)
--Field cu losses is constant
--for shunt and compound generator are constant losses
so, stray losses+ shunt cu losses are combined called
“constant losses”
ii) Variable losses:-The losses which varies with the load called
“variable losses”
-- Armature cu losses is know as “variable losses”
-- In series generator shunt field cu losses also
variable losses (IL=Ise=Ia)
So, Total losses=Armature copper losses + W C
=Ia2Ra+Wc=(I+Ish)2Ra+Wc
Total losses=Variable losses+ Constant losses
 Efficiency of D.C Generator
Efficiency of generator is defined as the ratio of output power to input power
Efficiency (η) =output ×100
input
input=output+ losses (or) output=input-losses
For D.C generator input mechanical & output electrical

Variation of η with load current