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Error Detect and Correct

This document discusses error detection and correction in chapters 10 of a textbook. It covers topics like types of errors, redundancy, detection vs correction, coding, cyclic redundancy checks, checksums, and Hamming codes. Examples are provided to illustrate calculating checksums and detecting/correcting errors using Hamming codes by adding redundant bits to messages.

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Gondisavita
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58 views

Error Detect and Correct

This document discusses error detection and correction in chapters 10 of a textbook. It covers topics like types of errors, redundancy, detection vs correction, coding, cyclic redundancy checks, checksums, and Hamming codes. Examples are provided to illustrate calculating checksums and detecting/correcting errors using Hamming codes by adding redundant bits to messages.

Uploaded by

Gondisavita
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 36

Chapter 10

Error Detection
and
Correction

10.1
Note

Data can be corrupted


during transmission.

Some applications require that


errors be detected and corrected.

10.2
10-1 INTRODUCTION

Let us first discuss some issues related, directly or


indirectly, to error detection and correction.

Topics discussed in this section:


Types of Errors
Redundancy
Detection Versus Correction
Forward Error Correction Versus Retransmission
Coding
Modular Arithmetic

10.3
Figure 10.1 Single-bit error

10.4
Figure 10.2 Burst error of length 8

10.5
Figure 10.3 The structure of encoder and decoder

To detect or correct errors, we need to send redundant bits

10.6
10-2 BLOCK CODING

In block coding, we divide our message into blocks,


each of k bits, called datawords. We add r redundant
bits to each block to make the length n = k + r. The
resulting n-bit blocks are called codewords.

Topics discussed in this section:


Error Detection
Error Correction
Hamming Distance
Minimum Hamming Distance

10.7
10.8
Table 10.1 A code for error detection (Example 10.2)

What if we want to send 01? We code it as 011. If 011


is received, no problem.
What if 001 is received? Error detected.
What if 000 is received? Error occurred, but not detected.

10.9
Let’s add more redundant bits to see if we can correct error.

Table 10.2 A code for error correction (Example 10.3)

Let’s say we want to send 01. We then transmit 01011.


What if an error occurs and we receive 01001. If we
assume one bit was in error, we can correct.

10.10
10-4 CYCLIC CODES

Cyclic codes are special linear block codes with one


extra property. In a cyclic code, if a codeword is
cyclically shifted (rotated), the result is another
codeword.

Topics discussed in this section:


Cyclic Redundancy Check
Hardware Implementation
Polynomials
Cyclic Code Analysis
Advantages of Cyclic Codes
Other Cyclic Codes
10.11
Cyclic Redundancy Checksum
The CRC error detection method treats the packet of data to
be transmitted as a large polynomial.
The transmitter takes the message polynomial and using
polynomial arithmetic, divides it by a given generating
polynomial.
The quotient is discarded but the remainder is “attached” to
the end of the message.

10.12
Cyclic Redundancy Checksum
The message (with the remainder) is transmitted to the
receiver.
The receiver divides the message and remainder by the same
generating polynomial.
If a remainder not equal to zero results, there was an error
during transmission.
If a remainder of zero results, there was no error during
transmission.

10.13
More Formally

10.14
More Formally

10.15
10.16
Common CRC Polynomials

 CRC-12: x12 + x11 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 


 CRC-16: x16 + x15 + x2 + 1
 CRC-CCITT: x16 + x15 + x5 + 1 
 CRC-32: x32 + x26 + x23 + x22 + x16 + x12
+ x11 + x10 + x8 + x7 + x5 + x4 + x2 + x +
1
 ATM CRC: x8 + x2 + x + 1

10.17
CRC Example

10.18
10-5 CHECKSUM

The last error detection method we discuss here is


called the checksum, or arithmetic checksum. The
checksum is used in the Internet by several protocols
although not at the data link layer. However, we briefly
discuss it here to complete our discussion on error
checking

Topics discussed in this section:


Idea
One’s Complement
Internet Checksum

10.19
Example 10.18

Suppose our data is a list of five 4-bit numbers that we


want to send to a destination. In addition to sending these
numbers, we send the sum of the numbers. For example,
if the set of numbers is (7, 11, 12, 0, 6), we send (7, 11, 12,
0, 6, 36), where 36 is the sum of the original numbers.
The receiver adds the five numbers and compares the
result with the sum. If the two are the same, the receiver
assumes no error, accepts the five numbers, and discards
the sum. Otherwise, there is an error somewhere and the
data are not accepted.

10.20
Example 10.19

We can make the job of the receiver easier if we send the


negative (complement) of the sum, called the checksum.
In this case, we send (7, 11, 12, 0, 6, −36). The receiver
can add all the numbers received (including the
checksum). If the result is 0, it assumes no error;
otherwise, there is an error.

10.21
Example 10.20

How can we represent the number 21 in one’s


complement arithmetic using only four bits?

Solution
The number 21 in binary is 10101 (it needs five bits). We
can wrap the leftmost bit and add it to the four rightmost
bits. We have (0101 + 1) = 0110 or 6.

10.22
Example 10.21

How can we represent the number −6 in one’s


complement arithmetic using only four bits?

Solution
In one’s complement arithmetic, the negative or
complement of a number is found by inverting all bits.
Positive 6 is 0110; negative 6 is 1001. If we consider only
unsigned numbers, this is 9. In other words, the
complement of 6 is 9. Another way to find the complement
of a number in one’s complement arithmetic is to subtract
the number from 2n − 1 (16 − 1 in this case).

10.23
Example 10.22

Let us redo Exercise 10.19 using one’s complement


arithmetic. Figure 10.24 shows the process at the sender
and at the receiver. The sender initializes the checksum
to 0 and adds all data items and the checksum (the
checksum is considered as one data item and is shown in
color). The result is 36. However, 36 cannot be expressed
in 4 bits. The extra two bits are wrapped and added with
the sum to create the wrapped sum value 6. In the figure,
we have shown the details in binary. The sum is then
complemented, resulting in the checksum value 9 (15 − 6
= 9). The sender now sends six data items to the receiver
including the checksum 9.
10.24
Example 10.22 (continued)

The receiver follows the same procedure as the sender. It


adds all data items (including the checksum); the result
is 45. The sum is wrapped and becomes 15. The wrapped
sum is complemented and becomes 0. Since the value of
the checksum is 0, this means that the data is not
corrupted. The receiver drops the checksum and keeps
the other data items. If the checksum is not zero, the
entire packet is dropped.

10.25
Figure 10.24 Example 10.22

1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 0

10.26
Note

Sender site:
1. The message is divided into 16-bit words.
2. The value of the checksum word is set to 0.
3. All words including the checksum are
added using one’s complement addition.
4. The sum is complemented and becomes the
checksum.
5. The checksum is sent with the data.

10.27
Note

Receiver site:
1. The message (including checksum) is
divided into 16-bit words.
2. All words are added using one’s
complement addition.
3. The sum is complemented and becomes the
new checksum.
4. If the value of checksum is 0, the message
is accepted; otherwise, it is rejected.

10.28
Example 10.23

Let us calculate the checksum for a text of 8 characters


(“Forouzan”). The text needs to be divided into 2-byte
(16-bit) words. We use ASCII (see Appendix A) to change
each byte to a 2-digit hexadecimal number. For example,
F is represented as 0x46 and o is represented as 0x6F.
Figure 10.25 shows how the checksum is calculated at the
sender and receiver sites. In part a of the figure, the value
of partial sum for the first column is 0x36. We keep the
rightmost digit (6) and insert the leftmost digit (3) as the
carry in the second column. The process is repeated for
each column. Note that if there is any corruption, the
checksum recalculated by the receiver is not all 0s. We
leave this an exercise.
10.29
Figure 10.25 Example 10.23

F F

F F F F

10.30
Error Correcting Codes
or
Forward Error Correction (FEC)

FEC is used in transmission of


radio signals, such as those used
in transmission of digital television
(Reed-Solomon and Trellis encoding)
and 4D-PAM5 (Viterbi and Trellis encoding)

Some FEC is based on Hamming Codes


10.31
Positions of redundancy bits in Hamming code

Let’s examine a Hamming Code

From previous edition of Forouzan

10.32
Redundancy bits calculation

10.33
Example of redundancy bit calculation

10.34
Error detection using Hamming code

10.35
Review Questions

10.36

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