INTRODUCTION TO

ORGANIC GEOCHEMISTRY
 REFERENCE
• Killops, S. dan Killops, V. (2005): Introduction to Organic Geochemistry,
Blackwell Publishing, Oxford.
• Law, C.A. (2009): Chapter 6: evaluating source rock, Exploring For Oil and Gas
Traps, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA.
• Peters, K.E. dan Cassa, M.R. (1994): Applied source rock geochemistry, 93 –
100 dalam Dow, W.G., Magoon, L.B., The petroleum system – from source to
trap, 639 hlm., The American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa,
Oklahoma, U.S.
• Peters, K.E., Walters, C.C., dan Moldowan, J.M. (2005): The Biomarker Guide
Volume 1: Biomarkers and Isotopes in the Environment and Human History,
Cambridge University Press.
• Waples, D.W. (1985): Geochemistry in Petroleum Exploration. International
Human Resources Development Co., Boston.
• Waples, D.M., dan Machihara, T. (1991): Biomarkers for geologist – a
practical guide to the application of steranes and triterpanes in petroleum
geology, American Association of Petroleum Geologist Methods in Exploration
No.9, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA.
Organic geochemistry is the study of the
impacts and processes that organisms have had
on the Earth.
The study of the abundance and composition
of naturally occurring organic substances, their
origins and fate, and the processes that affect
their distributions on Earth and in
extraterrestrial materials. These activities share
the common need for identification,
measurement, and assessment of organic matter
in its myriad forms.
Geochemistry increases exploration
efficiency by accounting for many of the
variables that control the volumes of
petroleum available for entrapment
(charge), including source rock quality
and richness, thermal maturity, and the
timing of generation-migration-
accumulation relative to trap formation
(e.g. Murris, 1984; Hunt, 1996, pp. 604-
614). It is most powerful when used with
other disciplines, such as seismic
sequence stratigraphy and reservoir
characterization.
Geochemistry applied to
exploration
Four technology milestones form the basis
for most modern applications of
geochemistry to petroleum exploration. These
are the concepts and applications of
(1)Petroleum systems and exploration risk,
(2)Biomarkers, isotopes, and multivariate statistics
for genetic oil-oil and oil–source rock
correlation,
(3)Calibrated three-dimensional (3D)
basin modeling, and
(4)Controls on petroleum occurrence and
composition related to secondary
processes.
Geochemistry is the key to petroleum
systems because it is required to:
establish the genetic link between petroleum
and the pod of active source rock (oil-source
rock correlation),
map the geographic extent of the
petroleum systems and of the pod of source
rock (e.g. for volumetric calculations of yield),
 asses the timing of generation-
and
accumulation
s migration-
relative to trap
formation.
THE CARBON CYCLE
Because oil and gas are generated from organic matter in
sedimentary rocks, we need to understand how this organic
matter came to be preserved in the rocks. Preservation of
organic material is actually a rare event. Most organic carbon is
returned to the atmosphere through the carbon cycle; less than 1%
of the annual photosynthetic production escapes from the carbon
cycle and is preserved in sediments. Oxidative decay of dead
organic matter is a highly efficient process mediated largely by
microorganisms.

Organic matter (or organic material, Natural Organic

Matter, or OM) is matter that has come from a once-living
organism; is capable of decay, or theproduct of decay;
or is composed of organic compounds. The definition
of organic matter varies upon the subject for which it is being
used.
Biogeochemical
Cycle
Organic carbon in sedimentary rocks
TYPE OF ORGANIC MATTER. Organic matter of
algal (phytoplanktonic) origin is consumed more readily by
organisms than are other types of organic material, because its
chemical components are digestible and provide precisely the
nutrients required by scavengers and predators. Nitrogen and
phosphorus are in particular demand; their virtual absence in
much terrestrial organic material, especially in structural
(woody) material, renders it of little nutritional value.
Furthermore, the phenolic components present in lignin-
derived terrestrial material are toxic to many micro-organism,
thus preventing extensive diagenesis of such material.
Any extensive organic diagenesis is therefore likely to eliminate
algal
organic matter first. That material which remains is dominantly
of terrestrial origin, and may include woody, cellulosic, lignitic,
cuticular, or resinous material, all of which are chemically quite
distinct from each other. It may also contain very resistent
organic debris derived from erosion of ancient rocks, forest fires,
and other oxidative processes.
OM decomposition is the reverse
CH2O + O2 CO2 + H2O

Almost all life on earth is a result of these two simple reactions:

carbon dioxide reacting with water.
6CO2 + 6H2O 6O2 + C6H12O6 (Carbohydrate – hexose
sugar)

Most Earth environments are oxygen-rich and result in the

destruction of OM.

OM preservation in geological materials requires a complete absence

of free oxygen (O2). OM preservation is rare.

 Average OM contents
1. Sandstones 0.05%.
2. Limestones 0.30%.
3. Mudrocks 2.00 %
Three basic requirements for the generation and preservation of organic
matter in sediments are
(1) high productivity
(2) rates of accumulation, and
(3) oxygen deficiency of the water column and the sea bed.
Environments of high organic productivity include (1) continental
margins, (2) lagoons and restricted seas, (3) deltas in warm latitudes, and
(4) lakes.
FIG. Some major environments for the
accumulation of organic-rich potential
hydrocarbon source rock.
•Continental margins, upwelling of nutrient-rich waters creates a favorable
niche for even higher levels of organic productivity. Periodic algal blooms,
which are most frequent in conditions of calm and warmth, can also act
to poison the microplankton, leading to high deposition and preservation rates
in these settings.

•Lagoons and restricted seas are favorable for high preservation of organic
matter. A lack of circulation of waters from the oxygenated surface layer to
the bottom waters induces anoxic (oxygen-deficient) conditions. Dead
organisms that sink to the sea bed are not scavenged there.

•Deltas are typified by some of the highest sedimentation rates of any

depositional environment. It is this factor that results in some deltaic
sediments being source rocks. Rapid deposition leads to quick burial below the
zone of organic scavenging near the sea bed.

•Freshwater lakes on continents are sites for high productivity and preservation
in the anoxic bottom waters that characterize the lake bed. The dominant
organisms that create lacustrine oil shales are algae and fungi/bacteria.
Hydrocarbon Compositions
and Classifications
 Further Readings
• Chilingar, G.V. et al, 2005, “Geology and Geochemistry of Oil
and Gas”. Chapters 5 and 6
• Rondeel, H.E., 2001, “Hydrocarbons”, Tekst voor de cursus
Grondstoffen en het Systeem Aarde (HD 698) – Chapters 3 - 5
• Peters, K.E. and M.R. Cassa, “Applied Source Rock
Geochemistry”, in The Petroleum System – From Source
to Trap, AAPG Memoir 60
• McCarthy, K. et al, 2011, “Basic Petroleum Geochemistry
for Source Rock Evaluation”, in Schlumberger Oilfield
Review – Summer 2011 pp 32-43
 Hydrocarbons

• Natural gas

• Crude Oil

• Bitumen / Asphaltene
 Crude Oil Benchmarks
• WTI – West Texas Intermediate
• Brent Crude Oil
• Dubai Crude Oil
• OPEC Reference Basket
• Indonesian Crude Price (ICP)
.....and 195 others
 Petroleum – density
or

Crude Type API gravity Density (kg/m3)

*)Light crude oil > 31.1 < 870
Medium oil 22.3 – 31.1 870 – 920
Heavy crude oil 10.0 – 22.3 920 – 1000
Extra heavy oil < 10.0 > 1000
*) Note: the boundary of light crude varies from one to another due to practical
reasons. NYMEX – 37o API, NEB Canada – 30.1o, PEMEX - 27o
Various Crude Oils
 Petroleum
• Naturally occurring hydrocarbons – composed almost
entirely of carbon and hydrogen:
• Gas (C1 – C4)
(@ room
• Liquid (C5 – C15)
temperature)
• Solid (C15 – and heavier)

Non–Hydrocarbons (resins and

asphaltenes) – NSO :
 Nitrogen
 Sulfur
 Oxygen
 Chemical Composition

• Paraffins (Alkanes / Saturates):

• Normal Paraffin (n-alkanes) – straight chain
• Iso-paraffin (i-alkanes) – branched chain
• Naphthene (cyclo-paraffin) – 5 or 6 ring alkanes
• Aromatic (benzene)
• NSO compounds
Paraffin (Saturates)

CnH2n+2

Saturates –
single bonds

• Straight chain

• Branched
(isomer)
Naphthene (Cyclic Saturates)
Saturates – single bonds
Aromatics
• Unsaturated – contains
double bonds
 Non-Hydrocarbon Compounds
• Resins  a sticky
flammable organic
substance, insoluble in
water, exuded by some
trees and other plants  RESIN

• Bitumen  a black viscous

mixture of hydrocarbons
obtained naturally or as a
residue from petroleum
distillation. It is used for
road surfacing and roofing.
 NSO Compounds
• Non -hydrocarbons
• Usually occurs in the heavier components of crude oils:
• Nitrogen
• Sulfur
• Oxygen

• CO2 and H2S often be present as impurities in oil and

gas reservoirs
 HC Fractionations
Aromatics and NSO

Paraffins Naphthene
The hydrocarbons in crude oil can generally be divided into four categories:
Paraffins: These can make up 15 to 60% of crude and have a carbon to hydrogen
ratio of 1:2, which means they contain twice the amount of hydrogen as they do
carbon. These are generally straight or branched chains, but never cyclic (circular)
compounds. Paraffins are the desired content in crude and what are used to make
fuels. The shorter the paraffins are, the lighter the crude is.
 Napthenes: These can make up 30 to 60% of crude and have a carbon to hydrogen
ratio of 1:2. These are cyclic compounds and can be thought of as cycloparaffins.
They are higher in density than equivalent paraffins and are more viscous.
 Aromatics: These can constitute anywhere from 3 to 30% of crude. They are
undesirable because burning them results in soot. They have a much less hydrogen
in comparison to carbon than is found in paraffins. They are also more viscous.
They are often solid or semi-solid when an equivalent paraffin would be a viscous
liquid under the same conditions.
Asphaltics: These average about 6% in most crude. They have a carbon to
hydrogen ratio of approximately 1:1, making them very dense. They are generally
undesirable in crude, but their 'stickiness' makes them excellent for use in road
constructions
 Sulfur Content

• Presence of sulfur (>0.5 %wt) suggests

marine environment
• High sulfur content (>2 %wt) may indicate
carbonate sourced
• In sand - shale formations there are many Fe +

+ ions that reacts with sulfur to make Pyrite

Petroleum and Petroleum Products
BACKUPS
what are we going to learn ???
 Petroleum
• Naturally occurring hydrocarbons – composed almost
entirely of carbon and hydrogen:
• Gas (C1 – C4)
(@ room
• Liquid (C5 – C15)
temperature)
• Solid (C15 – and heavier)

Non–Hydrocarbons (resins and

asphaltenes) – NSO :
 Nitrogen
 Sulfur
 Oxygen
 Chemical Composition

• Paraffins (Alkanes / Saturates):

• Normal Paraffin (n-alkanes) – straight chain
• Iso-paraffin (i-alkanes) – branched chain
• Naphthene (cyclo-paraffin) – 5 or 6 ring alkanes
• Aromatic (benzene)
• NSO compounds
 Source Rocks
Fine grained sediments –
thinly laminated containing
Organic Matters (OM)
Anaerobic – oxygen level <
0.5 mL/L – lack of
bioturbation
Deposited in low energy
environments (swamp, lake,
delta, lagoon, deep marine)
(Brook, 1987)
SOME QUESTIONS REGARDING SOURCE
ROCK:
1. Does the sediment have enough
organic materials? (richness)
2. Is the organic material appropriate?
(type)
3. Has the organic material been mature?
(maturity)
4. Has the hydrocarbon been expelled?
(expulsion)
C10+ Sats Gas Chromatogram
GC/MS  Sterana m/z 217  Source Rock

C27 C28

C29

20R 20R
20S bb
20S
aa
GC/MS  Terpana  m/z 191

Hopane

Norhopane

Trisnorneohpane (Ts)
Trisnorhopane (Tm) Moretana
HC Alterations
Good afternoon everybody…