1

Chapter 28
Size Reduction
RICHARDSON AND COULSON. VOL. 2
Size Reduction 2

Introduction
CrushingLaws
Equipment for size reduction
 Size Reduction (Introduction) 3

 The term size reduction is applied to all the ways in

which particles of solids are cut or broken down into
smaller pieces.
 Throughout the process industries, solids are recued by
different methods for different purposes.
 Synthetic chemicals are ground to powder
 Sheets of plastic are cut into cubes or diamonds.
 Size Reduction (Benefits) 4
 Size reduction leads to the increase in the surface area.
 The rate of dissolution of solid drug particles increases many folds after size reduction.
 The absorptive power of charcoal increases after size reduction due to increase in surface area.
 Size reduction produces particles in narrow size range. Mixing of powders with narrow size
range is easier.
 Pharmaceutical suspensions require finer particle size. It reduces rate of sedimentation.
 Pharmaceutical capsules, insufflations (i.e. powders inhaled directly into the lungs), and
ointments require particles size to be below 60mm size.
 Size Reduction (Benefits) 5

Reducing the particle size increases the

reactivity of solids.
Permits separation of unwanted ingredients by
mechanical methods.
Reduces the bulk of fibrous materials for easy
handling and for waste disposal.
 Size Reduction (Introduction) 6

 Size reduction of solids is an energy intensive and highly inefficient process.

 About 5% of all energy generated is used in size reduction processes (basically
the energy required for the creation of new surfaces).
 The industrial scales process is generally less than 1% efficient.
 In spite of existence of well developed theory of strength and breakage
mechanism for solids, the scale-up of particle breakage process is usually based
on past experience and testing and is very much in the hands of manufacturer of
breakage equipment.
DEF: The term size reduction is applied to all those ways in which
particles of solids are cut or broken into smaller pieces. 7
Mechanism of Size Reduction: 8
 Impact —Particle concussion by a single rigid force (hammer).
 Compression—Particle disintegration by two rigid forces (nutcracker).
 Shear —Produced when the particle is compressed between the edges of two hard surfaces moving
tangentially.
 Attrition —Arising from particles scraping against one another or against a rigid surface (a file).
Mechanism of Size Reduction: 9

Impact Compression Shear Attrition

 Ideal Crusher or Grinder: 10
 It should have a large capacity.
 Require a small power input per unit of product.
 Yield a product of a unit size or the size distribute on desired.
 Usually the performance of a crusher or grinder is compared with the
ideal/expected performance or properties of product to be obtained and the
variations are analyzed in terms of performance efficiency of the batch under
study.
 Despite of extensive study and care, there would be a great difference between
the performance of an ideal and actual crushing and grinding.
Characteristics of Comminuted Product: 11
 Unlike ideal crusher or grinder, an actual unit does not yield a uniform product, whether the
feed is uniformly sized or not.
 The mixture always consist up of a mixture of particles, ranging from a definite size to very
small sized particles.
 Sometimes the machines are designed to control the size of large particles, but the number of
fines can not be reduced.
 In some grinders, the fines are minimized but they can not be reduced.
 The ratio of diameter of largest to the smallest particle obtained is of the order of 10 ^4.
 Comminuted particles resembles to polyhedrons or they may be plate like or needle-like and
their size is characterized by two dimensions.
 Rittinger’s Law 12

 The work required for size reduction is directly

proportional to the new surfaces created.
 The mechanical losses (due to friction and inertia) are
not accounted in Rittinger's law as it only discusses the
new surfaces formed.
 Applicable to fine grinding.
 Energy for Size Reduction: 13
 The energy dE required to effect a small change dL in the size of unit mass of material is a simple power function of the
size.

 Rittinger’s law:
 putting p = −2, then integration gives:

 Writing C = KRfc, where fc is the crushing strength of the material, then Rittinger’s law, first postulated in 1867, is obtained as:

 Since the surface of unit mass of material is proportional to 1/L, the interpretation of this law is that the energy required for size
reduction is directly proportional to the increase in surface.
 Rittinger’s law is applicable to that part of the process where new surfaces are being created and holds most accurately for fine
grinding.
 Kick's Law 14

The work required for crushing a given quantity of

material is constant for a given reduction ratio
irrespective of original size.
Applicable to course crushing where reduction ratio
is small.
 Energy for Size Reduction: 15
 Kick’s law:
 putting p = −1, then integration gives:

 Writing C = KKfc, then Kick’s law, is obtained as:

 This supposes that the energy required is directly related to the reduction ratio L1/L2 which means that the
energy required to crush a given amount of material from a 50 mm to a 25 mm size is the same as that
required to reduce the size from 12 mm to 6 mm.
 Most closely related to the energy required to cause elastic deformation before the fracture occurs.
 This law works in an accurate manner than Rittinger’s law where coarse crushing takes place and the amount
of new surfaces produced are comparatively less.
 Bond’s Law 16

The work required to form particles of size d P form

a very large particle size is proportional to the
square root of the surface to volume ratio (s P/vP) of
the product.
 Bond’s Law 17

  
The work required to form particles of size dP from a very large particle size is proportional to the square root of
the surface to volume ratio (sP/vP) of the product.
 Mathematically we can write

 Where Kb=Bond’s constant

 More Precisely

  
 Bond’s Law 18

  When feed size is very large is negligible.
 Kb depends upon type of machine used and material to be crushed. It is defined as work index which is ‘the gross
energy in (kWh/ton) of feed required to reduce a very large feed to such a size that 80% of product will pass
through a 100μm or 0.1mm screen. Thus,
 df= infinite
 dp= 0.1 mm
 Thus
 Hence

 Hence the final expression for Bond’s Law will be

 Work Index 19

The gross energy (in kWh/ton of feed) requirement

to reduce a very large feed to such a size that 80%
of product will pass through a 100 μm or 0.1 mm
screen.
For feed size 0.05-50 mm.
20
Numerical Problem: 21
22
Energy Utilization: 23

 The energy fed to the crusher is distributed in following ways.

 In producing elastic deformation of particles before fracture occurs.
 In producing inelastic deformation which results in size reduction.
 In causing elastic distortion of the equipment.
 In friction between the particles and particles with the machine.
 In noise, heat and vibration in the plant.
 In friction losses in the plant itself.
24
Methods of Operating Crushers: 25
 There are two distinct methods of feeding material to a crusher:
 Free crushing;
 It involves feeding the material at a comparatively low rate so that the product can readily escape. Its
residence time in the machine is therefore short and the production of appreciable quantities of
undersize material is avoided.
 Choke feeding;
 In this case, the machine is kept full of material and discharge of the product is impeded so that the
material remains in the crusher for a longer period. This results in a higher degree of crushing,
although the capacity of the machine is reduced and energy consumption is high.
 This method is therefore used only when a comparatively small amount of materials is to be crushed
and when it is desired to complete the whole of the size reduction in one operation.
Modes of Operation: 26

Open circuit grinding:

If the plant is operated, as in choke feeding, so that the material is passed
only once through the equipment, the process is known as open circuit
grinding.
Closed circuit grinding:
If the product contains material which is insufficiently crushed, it may be
necessary to separate the product and return the oversize material for a
second crushing This system which is generally to be preferred, is known as
closed circuit grinding
Modes of Operation: 27

Separation of obtained fine particles can be done by:

 allowing the material to fall on to a screen
 or subjecting it to the action of a stream of fluid(for the separation of fines).
Size reduction ratio and equipment: 28
 It is not generally economical to effect a large reduction ratio in a single machine.
 Generally size reduction ratio (ratio of size of feed to the product) is large in case of coarse
crushers.
 Equipment classified according to the size of feed and product are given by the table,
Advantages and Disadvantages of wet Grinding: 29
 Wet grinding is generally applicable only with low speed mills.
 The advantages of wet grinding are:
 The power consumption is reduced by about 20–30 per cent.
 The capacity of the plant is increased.
 The removal of the product is facilitated and the amount of fines is
reduced.
 Dust formation is eliminated.
 The solids are more easily handled.
 Disadvantages are:
 The wear on the grinding medium is generally about 20 per cent greater.
 It may be necessary to dry the product.
Nature of Material to be Crushed:
 Hardness: 30
The hardness of the material affects the power consumption and the wear on the machine. With hard and
abrasive materials it is necessary to use a low-speed machine and to protect the bearings from the abrasive
dusts that are produced. Pressure lubrication is recommended. According to Mohr scale, Talc is considered as
soft and Diamond as a hard material.
 Structure:
Normal granular materials such as coal, ores and rocks can be effectively crushed employing the normal
forces of compression, impact, and so on. With fibrous materials a tearing action is required.
 Moisture content:
It is found that materials do not flow well if they contain between about 5 and 50 per cent of moisture. Under
these conditions the material tends to cake together in the form of balls. In general, grinding can be carried
out satisfactorily outside these limits.
 Crushing strength:
The power required for crushing is almost directly proportional to the crushing strength of the material.
Mohr scale of hardness 31
Nature of Material to be Crushed:
 Friability: 32
The friability of the material is its tendency to fracture during normal handling. In general, a crystalline
material will break along well-defined planes and the power required for crushing will increase as the particle
size is reduced.
 Stickiness:
A sticky material will tend to clog the grinding equipment and it should therefore be ground in a plant that can
be cleaned easily.
 Soapiness:
In general, this is a measure of the coefficient of friction of the surface of the material. If the coefficient of
friction is low, the crushing may be more difficult.
 Explosive:
Such materials must be ground wet or in the presence of an inert atmosphere.
 Materials yielding dusts that are harmful to the health:
Such material must be ground under conditions where the dust is not allowed to escape.
 Equipment for size reduction 33
 Size reduction is divided into crushers, grinders, ultrafine grinders, and cutting machines.
 Crushers do the heavy work of breaking large pieces of solid material into small lumps.
 A primary crusher operates on run of mine material and accepts anything that comes from the
mine face and breaking it into 150-250 mm (6 to 10 inch) lumps.
 A secondary crusher reduces these lumps to particles that are 6 mm in size.
 Grinders reduce crushed feed to powder.
 The product from an intermediate grinder might pass a 40 mesh screen.
 Most of the product from the fine grinder would pass a 200 mesh screen with 74μm opening.
 Equipment for size reduction 34
 An ultra fine grinder accepts feed particles no longer than 6 mm.
 The product size is typically 1 to 50 μm.
 Cutters give particles of definite size and shape, 2 to 10 mm in length.
 Compression is the characteristic action of crushers.
 Grinders imply impact and attrition which is sometimes combined with
compression.
 Ultrafine grinders operate principally by attrition.
 A cutting force is off course characteristic of cutters, dicers and slitters.
Types of Crushing equipment: 35
 Crushers 36

Slow speed machine for coarse reduction

Jaw crushers
Gyratory crushers
Smooth roll crushers
Compression in these crushers
 Jaw crusher 37

Feed is admitted between two jaws.

V open at top.
One jaw stationary and the other moveable.
Lumps of feed are caught between the jaws.
 Coarse Crusher: 38
Stag Jaw Crusher:
 Fixed jaw and a moving jaw pivoted at the top.
 Crushing faces formed of manganese steel.
 Very little tendency to clog, since the large movement is at the bottom
part.
 Uncrushed material is returned to the to top for desired crushing.
 Equipment is protected from damaging due to hard lumps by making
one of its toggle plate in driving mechanism relatively weak, so that if
large stresses are generated in the equipment, that can be compensated
by this plate and can be changed afterwards.
 Jaw width 150mm to 1m.
 Speed should be maintained to avoid extra fine production.
 Power requirement varies from 7 to 70kW.
 Feed rate of 10 kg/s.
 The angle of nip i.e. the angle between jaws is 30 O.
39
40
41
42
Coarse Crusher: 43
Dodge Jaw Crusher:
 Moving jaw is pivoted at the bottom.
 The less movement is therefore at the bottom and the more uniform product is obtained.
 Although the crusher is less widely used because of its tendency to choke
 Large opening at the top enables it to take large feed and affects a large size reduction.
 Comparatively smaller in size than stag crusher because of high fluctuating stresses produced.
44
Stag Jaw Crusher Dodge Jaw crusher
45
Moveable jaw is pivoted at top Moveable jaw is pivoted at bottom

The greatest amount of movement The greatest amount of movement

is at top is at bottom

Little tendency to choke Higher tendency to choke

Large size Smaller size

Low fluctuating stresses High fluctuating stresses

46
 Coarse Crusher: 47
Gyratory Crusher:
 Crushing head in front of a truncated cone, mounted on a shaft,
upper end is held in a flexible bearing, while the lower end is
driven.
 Crushing action takes place round whole of the cone.
 The maximum movement is at the bottom, the characteristics are
similar as that of stag jaw crusher.
 The crushing process is continuous and less fluctuation than in
jaw crusher, hence lower power consumption.
 Large capacity per unit area.
 Does not take a very large sized feed as jaw crusher, although it
gives a rather finer and more uniform product.
 Capital cost is high.
 Suitable where large quantities are to be handled.
Intermediate Crushers 48

Edge runner mill

Hammer mill
Pin type mill
Single roll crusher
Crushing rolls
 Intermediate Crusher: 49
Edge Runner Mill:
 A heavy cast iron or granite wheel, or Muller as it is
called, is mounted on a horizontal shaft which is rotated
on a horizontal plane in a heavy pan.
 Alternatively, Muller remains stationary and pan is
rotated, and in some cases the machine may incorporates
two mullers.
 Material is fed to the bottom of the pan and is worked
outward due to the action of Muller.
 A scraper is installed that removes the material that is
being adhered to the bottom and side surfaces of the pan
and returns it to the crushing zone.
 In some cases the bottom of the pan is perforated.
 Operate wet and dry.
 Used for paints, clays and sticky material.
 Intermediate Crusher: 50
Hammer Mill:
 This is an impact mill, employing high speed rotating discs, to which
are fixed a number of hammer bars which are swung outwards by
centrifugal force.
 Material Is fed either at the top or at the bottom and is thrown out
centrifugally and is crushed by being beaten between the hammer bars.
 Material is beaten until it is small enough to fall through the screen that
forms the lower portion of the casing.
 Since the hammer bars are hinged, the presence of any hard material
does not cause damage to the equipment, and the bars are readily
replaced when once they are worn out.
 For both fibrous and brittle materials.
 Sufficient lubrication is necessary to be provided to the bearings in
order to prevent entry of dust.
 Size of product is regulated by speed of bars etc.
51
 Intermediate Crusher: 52
Pin-Type Mill:
 Two vertical steel plates with horizontal projections on their near faces.
 One disc may be stationary while the other disc is rotated at a very
high speed, or they both may rotate in opposite direction.
 The material is gravity fed in through hopper or air conveyed to the
center of the discs, and is thrown outwards by centrifugal action and
broken against of the projections before it is discharged to the outer
body of the mill and falls under the gravity from the bottom of the
casing.
 Frequently used for chemicals, fertilizers or other materials that are
non-aggressive brittle or crystalline.
 A product size of about 20 micrometer is obtained.
 Controlled particle size distribution with very less no. of fines
production.
 Intermediate Crusher: 53
Single Roll Crusher:
 The single roll crusher consists of a toothed crushing roll which rotates close to a breaker plate.
 Material Is being crushed by compression and shear between the two surfaces.
 It is used extensively for crushing coal.
 Intermediate Crusher: 54
Crushing Rolls:
 Two rolls on adjacent bearings rotates in opposite directions.
 Clearance between them can be adjusted according to the size of the feed and the required size of the
product.
 Both rollers can be driven, one directly and other with the friction from the first one.
 Few centimeters to 1.2m in diameter of rollers.
 4:1 reduction ratio in a single operation.
 Angle of nip for crushing rolls 55
 An idealized system where a spherical or cylindrical particle of radius r 2 is being fed to crushing rolls of radius r1
can be shown as below.
 2a is the angle of nip, the angle between two
 common tangents to the particle and each of the
 rolls.
 2b is the distance between the rolls.
 It may be seen from the geometry that the angle
 Of nip is given by
 Example 2.2 56

If crushing rolls, 1 m in diameter, are set so

that the crushing surfaces are 12.5 mm apart
and the angle of nip is 31O.
What is the maximum size of particle which
should be fed to the rolls?
 Fine Crusher: 57
 Ball Mill (Construction):
 The ball mill consists of a rotating hollow cylinder, partially filled with balls, with its axis either horizontal or at
a small angle to the horizontal (slope).
 In large ball mill the shell might be 3 m in diameter and 4.25 m in length.
 The outlet is normally covered with a coarse screen to prevent the escape of the balls.
 The inner surface of the cylinder is usually lined with an abrasion-resistant material such as manganese steel,
stone wear or rubber.
 Less wear takes place in rubber-lined mills and the coefficient of friction between the balls and the cylinder is
greater than with steel or stoneware linings.
 Another type of ball mill is used to an increasing extent, where the mill is vibrated instead of being rotated, and
the rate of passage of material is controlled by the slope of the mill.
 Grinding medium are the metallic balls are usually made of iron, manganese or steel and occupy between 30 and
50 per cent of the volume of the mill.
 The diameter of ball used will vary between 12 mm and 125 mm.
58
 Fine Crusher: 59
Ball Mill (Working):
 The efficiency of grinding increases with the hold-up in the mill, until the voids between the balls are filled.
 Further increase in the quantity then lowers the efficiency.
 Large balls deal effectively with the feed and the small ones are responsible for giving a fine product.
 During grinding, the balls wear and are constantly replaced by new ones so that the mill contains balls of
various ages, and hence of various sizes.
 As the shell rotates the large balls moves towards the point of maximum diameter and small balls migrated
towards the discharge.
 As the mill rotate the balls are picked up by the wall and carried upward depending upon the speed where
they loose contact and falls to the bottom.
 In ball mill most of the reduction is done by impact as the balls are dropped from the top of mill and
remaining is done by compression and attrition as the ball slides over each other and over the wall of shell.
 Factors influencing the size of the product 60
 The rate of feed
 With high rates of feed, less size reduction is effected since the material is in the mill for a shorter time.

 The properties of feed material

 The larger the feed the larger is the product under given operating conditions. A smaller size reduction is obtained
with a hard material.

 Weight of balls
 A heavy charge of balls produces a fine product.
 The weight of the charge can be increased, either by increasing the number of balls or by using a material if
higher density.
 Factors influencing the size of the product
61

 Optimum grinding conditions are usually obtained when the bulk volume of the
balls is equal to 50 percent of the volume of the mill.
 The diameter of the balls
 Small balls facilitate the production of the fine material as they do not deal so
effectively with large particles in the feed.
 The limiting size reduction obtained with a given size of balls is known as
grinding limit.
 For economical operations, the smallest possible balls should be used.
 Factors influencing the size of the product 62

The slope of the ball mill

 An increase in the slope of the mill increases the capacity of the plant because
retention time is reduced, although coarse product is obtained.
Discharge freedom
 Increasing the freedom of discharge of the product has the same effect as
increasing the slope.
Factors influencing the size of the product
63

The speed of rotation of the mill.

 At low speeds of rotation, the balls simply roll over one another and little
crushing action is obtained.
 At slightly higher speeds, the balls are projected short distances across the mill,
and
 at still higher speeds they are thrown greater distances and considerable wear of
the lining of the mill takes place. At very high speeds, the balls are carried right
round in contact with
the sides of the mill and little relative movement or grinding takes place again.
Factors influencing the size of the 64
product
 The minimum speed at which the balls are carried round in this
manner is called the critical speed of the mill and, under these
conditions, there will be no resultant force acting on the ball when it is
situated in contact with the lining of the mill in the uppermost
position, that is the centrifugal force will be exactly equal
to the weight of the ball. If the mill is rotating at the critical angular
velocity
ωc then:
65
Critical speed (Ball Mill) 66

 Ball
mill runs at around 50-75% of the critical
speed.
 Factors influencing the size of the product 67

The level of material in the mill.

 Power consumption is reduced by maintaining a low level of material
in the mill, and this can be controlled most satisfactorily by fitting a
suitable discharge opening for the product.
 Advantages of ball mill 68

 Can be used for both wet or dry grinding.

 Cost of installation and power are low.
 Can be used in inert atmosphere for grinding of explosive
material.
 Grinding medium is cheap.
 Suitable for all degrees of hardness.
 Both for batch and continuous process.
 Both for open and closed circuit grinding.
 Other fine grinders 69

The tube mill

The rod mill
The Hardinage mill
The sand mill
The vibration mill
Colloids mill
 Ultra Fine Grinders: 70
Fluid Energy Mill:
 Another form of mill which do not give quite such a fine
product is the jet pulverize.
 Solid material is pulverized in jets of high pressure steam or
compressed air.
 Pulverizing takes place in a shallow cylindrical chamber
arranged tangentially at equal intervals around the
circumference.
 The solid is thrown to the outside walls of the chamber, and
the fine particles are formed by the shearing action resulting
from differential velocities within the fluid stream.
 Comminution can also be achieved by bombarding the
particles against each other (which is achieved high speed
pressurized air or steam at high temperature).
 (for size ranges, temperature and pressure limit read
provided notes).
71
 Example 2.3 72

A ball mill, 1.2 m in diameter, with radius to small

particle r=0.6 m is run at 0.80 Hz and it is found that the
mill is not working properly.
 Should there be any modification in the conditions of
operation be suggested?
Numerical Problems: 73
 A certain crusher accepts a feed of rock having diameter of 0.75 in and discharge a
product of diameter 0.2 in. The power required to crush 12 tons per hr is 9.3 hp. What
should be the power required if the capacity is reduced to 10 ton per hr and as a
consequence of which the diameter of product become 0.15 in?
(Hint: use Rittinger’s Law, Bond’s Law and Kick’s law for power calculation).
 What is the power required to crush 100 tons/hr of lime stone if 80% of the feed
passes through a 2 in screen and 80% of the product through 1/8 in screen (Ei = 12.74
kW hr mm/tons)?
 It is required to crush 250 tons/hr of an ore which may be classified as a soft
material . The range of feed size is such that 80% passes through an opening of 16 in.
The product size is to be such that 80% passes through an opening of 3 in. Estimate
the power consumption per ton of feed (Ei = 13.1 kW hr mm/ton)?
Numerical Problems: 74
 What will be the product size of the material having reduction ratio of 10?
If the energy required to crush 2 tons of material is 100 kW hr. Assume Ei
= 10 kW hr mm /ton).
 A crusher is reducing lime stone of crushing strength 70 MN/m2 from
6mm diameter average size to 0.1 mm average size. Energy required is 9
kW/(tons/hr). The same machine is used to crush dolomite at the same rate
from 6mm diameter of average size to the product which consist of 20%
with an average diameter of 0.25 mm, 60% with an average diameter of
0.125 mm and the balance with an average diameter of 0.085 mm.
Estimate the power required to drive a crusher. The crushing strength of
dolomite is 100 MN/m2.