Environmental and Sanitary Engineering

Lecture 11
 { SECONDARY TREATMENT }
The major purpose of secondary treatment is to remove the soluble BOD that escapes primary
treatment and to provide further removal of suspended solids. The basic ingredients needed for
conventional aerobic secondary biologic treatment are the availability of many microorganisms,
good contact between these organisms and the organic material, the availability of oxygen, and the
maintenance of other favorable environmental conditions (for example, favorable temperature and
sufficient time for the organisms to work). A variety of approaches have been used in the past to
meet these basic needs. The most common approaches are :
(1) activated sludge, (2) trickling filters, and (3) oxidation ponds (or lagoons).

A process that does not fit precisely into either the trickling filter or the activated sludge category
but does employ principles common to both is the rotating biological contactor (RBC).
Because the secondary treatment processes are fundamentally microbiological, we begin this
discussion with an introduction to wastewater microbiology
Secondary Treatment
• Secondary treatment is a biological treatment process that removes dissolved organic matter from
wastewater.

• Sewage microorganisms are cultivated and added to the wastewater. The microorganisms use
organic matter from sewage as their food supply. This process leads to decomposition or
biodegradation of organic wastes.

• Basic approach is to use aerobic biological degradation:

microorganisms
organic carbon + O2 CO2 + new cells

• Objective is to allow the BOD to be exerted in the treatment plant rather than in the stream

How is this accomplished?

Create a very rich environment for growth of a diverse microbial community.
Basic Ingredients
• High density of microorganisms (keep organisms in system)
• Good contact between organisms and wastes (provide mixing)
• Provide high levels of oxygen (aeration)
• Favorable temperature, pH, nutrients (design and operation)
• No toxic chemicals present (control industrial inputs)

Dispersed (suspended) growth vs Fixed growth:

• Two approaches of secondary treatment – fixed film, and suspended film systems

• Dispersed Growth (suspended organisms)

– Activated sludge
– Oxidation ditches/ponds
– Aerated lagoons, stabilization ponds

• Fixed Growth (attached organisms)

– Trickling filters
– Rotating Biological Contactors
Wastewater Microbiology
1- Role of Microorganisms. The stabilization of organic matter is accomplished biologically
using a variety of microorganisms. The microorganisms convert the colloidal and dissolved
carbonaceous organic matter into various gases and into protoplasm. Because protoplasm has a
specific gravity slightly greater than that of water, it can be removed from the treated liquid by
gravity settling.
It is important to note that unless the protoplasm produced from the organic matter is removed
from the solution, complete treatment will not be accomplished because the protoplasm, which
itself is organic, will be measured as BOD in the effluent.

2- Classification of Microorganisms by Kingdoms. Microorganisms are organized into five

broad groups based on their structural and functional differences. The groups are called
kingdoms. The five kingdoms are animals, plants, Protista, fungi, and bacteria. Representative
examples and characteristics of differentiation are shown in Figure 8-7.
3- Classification by Energy and Carbon Source. The relationship between the source of carbon and
the source of energy for the microorganism is important. Carbon is the basic building block for cell
synthesis. A source of energy must be obtained from outside the cell to enable synthesis to proceed.
Our goal in wastewater treatment is to convert both the carbon and the energy in the wastewater into
the cells of microorganisms, which we can remove from the water by settling. Therefore, we wish to
encourage the growth of organisms that use organic material for both their carbon and energy source.

4- Classification by their Relationship to Oxygen. Bacteria also are classified by their ability or
inability to utilize oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor* in oxidation/ reduction reactions. Obligate
aerobes are microorganisms that must have oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor. When
wastewater contains oxygen and can support obligate aerobes, it is called aerobic. Obligate anaerobes
are microorganisms that cannot survive in the presence of oxygen. They cannot use oxygen as a
terminal electron acceptor. Wastewater that is devoid of oxygen is called anaerobic.

5- Classification by their Preferred Temperature Regime. Each species of bacteria reproduces best
within a limited range of temperatures. Four temperature ranges are used to classify bacteria.
Bacterial Biochemistry

The general term that describes all of the chemical activities performed by a cell is metabolism.
This in turn is divided into two parts: catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism includes all the
biochemical processes by which a substrate is degraded to end products with the release of
energy.* In wastewater treatment, the substrate is oxidized. The oxidation process releases energy
that is transferred to an energy carrier, which stores it for future use by the bacterium (Figure 8-
8). Some chemical compounds released by catabolism are used by the bacterial cell for its life
functions.
Anabolism includes all the biochemical processes by which the bacterium synthesizes new
chemical compounds needed by the cells to live and reproduce. The synthesis process is driven by
the energy that was stored in the energy carrier.
Decomposition of Waste.
The type of electron acceptor available for catabolism determines the type of decomposition (that is,
aerobic, anoxic, or anaerobic) used by a mixed culture of microorganisms. Each type of
decomposition has peculiar characteristics that affect its use in waste treatment.

Aerobic Decomposition.
From our discussion of bacterial metabolism you will recall that molecular oxygen (O2) must be
present as the terminal electron acceptor for decomposition to proceed by aerobic oxidation. As in
natural water bodies, the oxygen is measured as DO. When oxygen is present, it is the only terminal
electron acceptor used. Hence, the chemical end products of decomposition are primarily carbon
dioxide, water, and new cell material (Table 8-8). In healthy natural water systems, aerobic
decomposition is the principal means of self-purification.
Because of the large amount of energy released in aerobic oxidation, most aerobic organisms are
capable of high growth rates. Consequently, there is a relatively large production of new cells in
comparison with the other oxidation systems. This means that more biological sludge is generated in
aerobic oxidation than in the other oxidation systems.
Aerobic decomposition is the method of choice for large quantities of dilute wastewater (BOD5 less
than 500 mg/L) because decomposition is rapid, efficient, and has a low odor potential. For high-
strength wastewater (BOD5 is greater than 1,000 mg/L), aerobic decomposition is not suitable
because of the difficulty in supplying enough oxygen and because of the large amount of biological
sludge produced.
Anoxic Decomposition.

-
Some microorganisms can use nitrate (NO3 ) as the terminal electron acceptor in the absence of
molecular oxygen. Oxidation by this route is called denitrification.

The end products from denitrification are nitrogen gas, carbon dioxide, water, and new cell material.
The amount of energy made available to the cell during denitrification is about the same as that
made available during aerobic decomposition. As a consequence, the rate of production of new cells,
although not as high as in aerobic decomposition, is relatively high.

Denitrification is of importance in wastewater treatment where nitrogen must be removed to protect

the receiving body. In this case, a special treatment step is added to the conventional process for
removal of carbonaceous material. 
Anaerobic Decomposition.
In order to achieve anaerobic decomposition, molecular oxygen and nitrate must not be present as
terminal electron acceptors. Sulfate (SO42-), carbon dioxide, and organic compounds that can be
reduced serve as terminal electron acceptors. The reduction of sulfate results in the production of
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and a group of equally odiferous organic sulfur compounds called
mercaptans. The anaerobic decomposition (fermentation) of organic matter generally is considered
to be a three-step process. In the first step, waste components are hydrolysed. In the second step,
complex organic compounds are fermented to low-molecular-weight fatty acids (volatile acids). In
the third step, the organic acids are converted to methane.

Anaerobic decomposition yields carbon dioxide, methane, and water as the major end products.
Additional end products include ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and mercaptans. As a consequence of
these last three compounds, anaerobic decomposition is characterized by an unbelievably horrid
stench.

Because only small amounts of energy are released during anaerobic oxidation, the amount of cell
production is low. Thus, sludge production is low. We make use of this fact in wastewater treatment
by using anaerobic decomposition to stabilize sludges produced during aerobic and anoxic
decomposition
Activated Sludge
The activated sludge process is a biological wastewater treatment technique in which a mixture of
wastewater and biological sludge (microorganisms) is agitated and aerated. Because the
microorganisms are suspended in the liquid wastewater, this process is known as a suspended
growth process. The biological solids are subsequently separated from the treated wastewater and
returned to the aeration process as needed. The activated sludge process derives its name from the
biological mass formed when air is continuously injected into the wastewater. In this process,
microorganisms are mixed thoroughly with the organic compounds under conditions that stimulate
their growth through use of the organic compounds as food. As the microorganisms grow and are
mixed by the agitation of the air, the individual organisms clump together (flocculate) to form an
active mass of microbes (biologic floc) called activated sludge.

In practice, wastewater flows continuously into an aeration tank (Figure 8-13) where air is injected to
mix the activated sludge with the wastewater and to supply the oxygen needed for the organisms to
break down the organic compounds. The mixture of activated sludge and wastewater in the aeration
tank is called mixed liquor. The mixed liquor flows from the aeration tank to a secondary clarifier
where the activated sludge is settled out. Most of the settled sludge is returned to the aeration tank
(and is called return sludge) to maintain the high population of microbes that permits rapid
breakdown of the organic compounds. Because more activated sludge is produced than is desirable
in the process, some of the return sludge is diverted or wasted to the sludge handling system for
treatment and disposal.
In conventional activated sludge systems, the wastewater is typically aerated for six to eight hours
in long, rectangular aeration basins. About 8 m3 of air is provided for each m3 of wastewater treated.
Sufficient air is provided to keep the sludge in suspension (Figure 8-14).

The air is injected near the bottom of the aeration tank through a system of diffusers . The volume
of sludge returned to the aeration basin is typically 20 to 30 percent of the wastewater flow.

The activated sludge process is controlled by wasting a portion of the microorganisms each day in
order to maintain the proper amount of microorganisms to efficiently degrade the BOD 5.

Wasting means that a portion of the microorganisms is discarded from the process. The discarded
microorganisms are called waste activated sludge (WAS). A balance is then achieved between growth
of new organisms and their removal by wasting. If too much sludge is wasted, the concentration of
microorganisms in the mixed liquor will become too low for effective treatment. If too little sludge is
wasted, a large concentration of microorganisms will accumulate and, ultimately, overflow the
secondary tank and flow into the receiving stream.

The mean cell residence time θc, also called solids retention time (SRT) or sludge age, is
defined as the average amount of time that microorganisms are kept in the system.
FIGURE 8-14
Activated sludge aeration tank under air.
Activated Sludge
• Process in which a mixture of wastewater and microorganisms is agitated and aerated
• Leads to oxidation of dissolved organics
• After oxidation, separate sludge (mostly microbial cells, water, and other contaminants) from
wastewater
• Induce microbial growth
– Need food, oxygen
– Want Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS) of 3,000 to 6,000 mg/L
Completely Mixed Activated Sludge Process.
The design formulas for the completely mixed activated sludge process are a mass balance
application of the equations used to describe the kinetics of microbial growth. A mass balance
diagram for the completely mixed system (CSTR) is shown in Figure 8-16. The mass balance
equations are written for the system boundary shown by the dashed line. Two mass balances are
required to define the design of the reactor: one for biomass and one for food (soluble BOD 5).

Under steady-state conditions, the mass balance for biomass may be written as:

(Biomass in influent) + (Net biomass growth) = (Biomass in effluent) + (Biomass wasted)

 Hydraulic detention time (to) of the reactor:

Mean cell-residence time (θc):

Q = wastewater flow rate into the aeration tank, m3/d.

V = volume of aeration tank, m3
X = microorganism concentration (mixed-liquor volatile suspended solids or MLVSS) in the aeration
tank, mg/L
Qw = flow rate of liquid containing microorganisms to be wasted, m3/d
Xr = microorganism concentration (VSS) in sludge being wasted, mg/L
Note
  that the concentration of soluble BOD5 leaving the system (S) is affected only by the mean cell-
residence time and not by the amount of BOD5 entering the aeration tank or by the hydraulic
detention time.
It is also important to reemphasize that S is the soluble BOD5 and not the total BOD5 . Some
fraction of the suspended solids that do not settle in the secondary settling tank also contributes to
the BOD5 load to the receiving body.

Another commonly used parameter in the activated sludge process is the food to microorganism
ratio (F/M), which is defined as:

Q = wastewater flow rate into the aeration tank, m3/d.

V = volume of aeration tank, m3
X = microorganism concentration (mixed-liquor volatile suspended solids or MLVSS) in the aeration
tank, mg/L
So = concentration of soluble BOD5 in the influent
The
  F/M ratio is controlled by wasting part of the microbial mass, thereby reducing the MLVSS. A
high rate of wasting causes a high F/M ratio. A high F/M yields organisms that are saturated with
food. The result is that efficiency of treatment is poor. A low rate of wasting causes a low F/M ratio,
which yields organisms that are starved. This results in more complete degradation of the waste.

A long (low F/M) is not always used, however, because of certain trade-offs that must be considered.
A long means a larger and more costly aeration tank. It also means a higher requirement for oxygen
and, thus, higher power costs. Problems with poor sludge “settleability” in the final clarifier may be
encountered if is too long.

However, because the waste is more completely degraded to final end products and less of the waste is
converted into microbial cells when the microorganisms are starved at a low F/M, there is less sludge
to handle. Because both the F/M ratio and the cell-detention time are controlled by wasting
of organisms, they are interrelated. A high F/M corresponds to a short and a low F/M corresponds to
a long . F/M values typically range from 0.1 to 1.0 mg/mg.d for the various modifications of the
activated sludge process.
F/M Parameter

• Low F/M (low rate of wasting)

– starved organisms
– more complete degradation
– larger, more costly aeration tanks
– more O2 required
– higher power costs (to supply O2)
– less sludge to handle

• High F/M (high rate of wasting)

– organisms are saturated with food
– low treatment efficiency
Sludge Return.

Among the major decisions in developing a suspended growth reactor design is the selection of the
mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS) concentration and the corresponding mixed liquor
suspended solids (MLSS) concentration. This selection is not simple. It depends on the objective of
the reactor, settling characteristics of the sludge, and the rate of recycle of sludge (called the
sludge return rate or sludge return, or return activated sludge (RAS).
A high MLVSS concentration is desirable because it leads to a smaller reactor and lower construction
costs. But this may lead to a larger settling tank to handle the sludge load. In addition, a higher
MLVSS also requires a higher aeration rate to meet the increase in oxygen demand. Increasing
MLVSS also requires increasing the rate at which sludge is returned from the settling tank. Finally, a
higher MLVSS may lead to a higher effluent suspended solids and BOD in the effluent.
 Process Design Considerations.

The SRT (i.e., ) selected for design is a function of the degree of treatment required. A high SRT (or
older sludge age) results in a higher quantity of solids being carried in the system and a higher degree
of treatment being obtained. A long SRT also results in the production of less waste sludge. SRT
values for design of carbonaceous BOD5 removal are a function of the minimum temperature at
which the reactor basin will be operated. They range from 5d at 20C to 15d at 58C. It is expected that
the soluble BOD5 in the effluent from the aeration system will be 4 to 8 mg/L. If industrial wastes are
discharged to the municipal system, several additional concerns must be addressed. Municipal
wastewater generally contains sufficient nitrogen and phosphorus to support biological growth. The
presence of large volumes of industrial wastewater that is deficient in either of these nutrients will
result in poor removal efficiencies. Addition of supplemental nitrogen and phosphorus may be
required.

The ratio of nitrogen to BOD5 should be 1:32. The ratio of phosphorus to BOD5 should be 1:150.
Although toxic metals and organic compounds may be at low enough levels that they do not interfere
with the operation of the plant, two other unwanted effects may result if they are not excluded in a
pretreatment program. Volatile organic compounds may be stripped from solution into the
atmosphere in the aeration tank. Thus, the WWTP may become a source of air pollution. The toxic
metals may precipitate into the waste sludge. Thus, otherwise nonhazardous sludge may be rendered
hazardous. Oil and grease that pass through the primary treatment system will form grease balls on
the surface of the aeration tank.
The microorganisms cannot degrade this material because it is not in the water where they can
physically come in contact with it. Special consideration should be given to the surface skimming
equipment in the secondary clarifier to handle the grease balls
Secondary Clarifier Design Considerations.

Although the secondary settling tank (Figure 8-18) is an integral part of both the trickling filter
and the activated sludge process, environmental engineers have focused particular attention on
the secondary clarifier used after the activated sludge process. A secondary clarifier is important
because of the high solids loading and fluffy nature of the activated sludge biological
floc. Also, it is highly desirable that sludge recycle be well thickened.

Secondary settling tanks for activated sludge are generally characterized as having Type III
settling. Some authors would argue that Types I and II also occur. The following guidance has
been excerpted from the Joint Task Force of the Water Pollution Control Federation and the
American Society of Civil Engineers (WEF, 1998). The design factors discussed here are the result
of the experiences of investigators, plant superintendents, and equipment manufacturers. The
criteria primarily apply to circular (or square) center-fed basins, which comprise the majority of
activated sludge secondary settling units designed in the last 40 years.

An overflow rate between 16 and 30 m/d for the average flow in a conventional process can be
expected to result in good separation of liquid and SS. The design engineer also must check the
peak hydraulic rates that will be imposed on the settling basin. Suggested secondary settling tank
side water depths (SWD) are shown the Table 8-11. Solids loading rates should be in the range
100 to 150 kg MLSS/d.m2.
Plants with a capacity less than 3,800 m3/d should not have a hydraulic loading greater than 250
m3/d . m of weir length at peak hourly flow. For plants larger than 3,800 m3/d, the weir loading
rate is specified as less than 350 m3/d . m.
Current design consensus is that weir placement and settling tank configuration have more effect on
clarifier performance than the hydraulic loading.