Lecture 1: SQL: DDL & DML

DCO11310
Database Systems and Design

By Rose Chang
 Outline of Lecture

 SQL and its Origins

 Overview of Oracle 9i & iSQL*Plus
 Writing DML & DDL
 Write a SELECT statement that:
 Returns all rows and columns from a table
 Returns specified columns from a table
 Uses column aliases to give descriptive column headings
 Returns specified rows from a table
 Re-order the rows

Lecture 2 2
 SQL - Background

 SQL (Sequel) most commonly used relational query

and modification language
 Core is equivalent to relational algebra
 Wealth of additional features (e.g., aggregation, updates)
 Designed at IBM Research (Systems R*)
 Declarative query language
 Many different standards
 ANSI SQL (SQL1), SQL-92 (SQL2)
 Variety of different dialects produced by DBMS vendors

Lecture 2 3
 What is a Table?
A table is like a file that stores records with
a 2-Dimension Structure)

Example: Staff table

Staff_ID Name Position Department

S001 Jimmy Engineer Mechanical

S002 Betty Officer HRO

… … … …

Lecture 2 4
 SQL

 Components of language
 Schema definition, data retrieval, data
modification, constraints, views, authorization,
etc.
 DDL = Data Definition Language
 DML = Data Manipulation Language
 DCL = Data Control Language

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 SQL Statements

SELECT Data retrieval

INSERT
UPDATE Data manipulation language
DELETE (DML)
MERGE
CREATE
ALTER
DROP Data definition language (DDL)
RENAME
TRUNCATE
COMMIT
ROLLBACK Transaction control
SAVEPOINT
GRANT
REVOKE Data control language (DCL)
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 Oracle9i

Lecture 2 7
 Oracle Internet Platform
Clients Any mail
Any browser client Any FTP client
System management

Development tools
Internet applications

SQL
SQL
Business logic Presentation and
and data business logic
PL/SQL
PL/SQL

Application
Databases servers
Java
Java

Network services
Lecture 2
 SQL and iSQL*Plus Interaction
SQL statements
iSQL*Plus Oracle
Internet server
Browser

iSQL*Plus Query results

commands

Formatted report

Client

Lecture 2 9
 SQL Statements vs.
iSQL*Plus Commands
SQL iSQL*Plus
• A language • An environment
• ANSI standard
• Oracle proprietary
• Keywords can be
• Keyword cannot be abbreviated
abbreviated • Commands do not allow
• Statements manipulate manipulation of values in
data and table the database
definitions in the • Runs on a browser
database • Centrally loaded, does not
have to be implemented on
each machine

SQL iSQL*Plus
statements commands
Lecture 2 10
 Oracle Naming Rules

Table names and column names:

 Must begin with a letter
 Must be 1–30 characters long
 Must contain only A–Z, a–z, 0–9, _, $, and #
 Must not duplicate the name of another
object owned by the same user
 Must not be an Oracle server reserved word

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 Question

Which of the following is not valid table

name?
1. Test_number
2. P$$#_loc
3. 1_copy_of_emp
4. Flop_Test_3

Lecture 2 12
 SQL Data Types I

 Character strings of fixed or varying length

 CHAR(n): fixed length string of length n, up to 2000
bytes
 VARCHAR2(n): string of UP to n characters, up to 4000
bytes
 Numeric Data
 Number [(precision[,mantissa])]
 Precision (# digits in number) from 1…38 digits
 Mantissa (# digits to right of decimal point) from 0…38 digits,

Lecture 2 13
 SQL Data Types II

 Date and Time

 Default DATE: ‘DD-MON-YY’
 TIME ‘HH:MM:SS’
 7 bytes in length
 Also recognized
 ROWID
 BLOB
 … See the Data Types List

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 Data Type List
Data Type Description
VARCHAR2(size) Variable-length character data
CHAR(size) Fixed-length character data
NUMBER(p,s) Variable-length numeric data
DATE Date and time values
LONG Variable-length character data
up to 2 gigabytes
CLOB Character data up to 4
gigabytes
RAW and LONG RAW Raw binary data
BLOB Binary data up to 4 gigabytes
BFILE Binary data stored in an external
file; up to 4 gigabytes
ROWID A 64 base number system representing
the unique address of a row in its table.
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 Creating and Deleting Tables

 Simple Table Declaration: CREATE TABLE

 Name of the relation and parenthesized list of attribute
names and their types
CREATE TABLE department
(departmentno NUMBER(2),
dname VARCHAR2(14),
loc VARCHAR2(13));
Table created.

 Table Deletion: DROP TABLE <TABLENAME>

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 The ALTER TABLE Statement

 Use the ALTER TABLE statement to add,

modify, or drop columns
ALTER TABLE table
ADD (column datatype [DEFAULT expr]
[, column datatype]...);

ALTER TABLE table

MODIFY (column datatype [DEFAULT expr]
[, column datatype]...);

ALTER TABLE table

DROP (column);
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 Examples of ALTER TABLE

ALTER
ALTER TABLE
TABLE department
department
ADD
ADD (job_id
(job_id VARCHAR2(9));
VARCHAR2(9));
Table altered.
Table altered.

ALTER
ALTER TABLE
TABLE department
department
MODIFY
MODIFY (last_name
(last_name VARCHAR2(30));
VARCHAR2(30));
Table
Table altered.
altered.

ALTER
ALTER TABLE
TABLE department
department
DROP
DROP COLUMN
COLUMN job_id;
job_id;
Table
Table altered.
altered.

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 Required Fields
 A null value is unavailable, unassigned,
unknown, or inapplicable, is not the same as
zero or a blank space
CREATE TABLE department
(departmentno NUMBER(2)NOT NULL,
dname VARCHAR2(14),
loc VARCHAR2(13));
Table created.

INSERT
INSERT INTO
INTO department
department
VALUES
VALUES (100,
(100, 'Finance',
'Finance', NULL);
NULL);

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 Default Values

 Often, do not have values for all components of a table

 Any place where we declare attribute and its type, may
use DEFAULT keyword followed by appropriate
value
 E.g.:
 in CREATE TABLE statement
 loc VARCHAR2(13) DEFAULT ‘?’,
 ALTER TABLE department ADD phone CHAR(16)
DEFAULT ‘unlisted’;

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 Changing the Name of an
Object
 To change the name of a table, view,
sequence, or synonym, you execute the
RENAME statement.
RENAME department TO detail_department;
Table renamed.

 You must be the owner of the object

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 Truncating a Table

 The TRUNCATE TABLE statement:

 Removes all rows from a table
 Releases the storage space used by that table

TRUNCATE
TABLE detail_department;
Table truncated.
 You cannot roll back row removal when using
TRUNCATE.
 Alternatively, you can remove rows by using the
DELETE statement.

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 The INSERT Statement Syntax

 Add new rows to a table by using the

INSERT statement.
INSERT
INSERT INTO
INTO table
table [(column
[(column [,
[, column...])]
column...])]
VALUES
VALUES (value
(value [,
[, value...]);
value...]);

 Only one row is inserted at a time with this

syntax.

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 Inserting New Rows

 Insert a new row containing values for each column.

 List values in the default order of the columns in the
table.
 Optionally, list the columns in the INSERT clause.

INSERT INTO department(department_id, department_name,

manager_id, location_id)
VALUES (70, 'Public Relations', 100, 1700);
1 Enclose character and date values within single quotation
row created.
marks.

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 Inserting Rows with Null
Values
 Implicit method: Omit the column from the
column list.
INSERT INTO department (department_id,
department_name )
VALUES (30, 'Purchasing');
1 row created.

• Explicit method: Specify the NULL keyword in the

VALUES clause.
INSERT INTO department
VALUES (100, 'Finance', NULL, NULL);
1 row created.
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 The UPDATE Statement
Syntax
 Modify existing rows with the UPDATE
statement.
UPDATE
UPDATE table
table
SET
SET column
column == value
value [,
[, column
column == value,
value, ...]
...]
[WHERE
[WHERE condition];
condition];

 Update more than one row at a time, if

required.

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 Updating Rows in a Table

 Specific row or rows are modified if you

specify the WHERE clause.
UPDATE employees
SET department_id = 70
WHERE employee_id = 113;
1 row updated.

 All rows in the table are modified if you omit

the WHERE clause.
UPDATE
UPDATE copy_emp
copy_emp
SET
SET department_id
department_id == 110;
110;
22
22 rows
rows updated.
updated.
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 The DELETE Statement

 You can remove existing rows from a table

by using the DELETE statement.

DELETE
DELETE [FROM]
[FROM] table
table
[WHERE
[WHERE condition];
condition];

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 Deleting Rows from a Table

 Specific rows are deleted if you specify the

WHERE clause.
DELETE
DELETE FROM
FROM department
department
WHERE
WHERE department_name
department_name == 'Finance';
'Finance';
11 row
row deleted.
deleted.

 All rows in the table are deleted if you omit

the WHERE clause.
DELETE
DELETE FROM
FROM copy_emp;
copy_emp;
22
22 rows
rows deleted.
deleted.
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 Capabilities of SQL SELECT
Statements
Projection Selection

Table 1 Table 1

Join

Table 1 Table 2
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 Basic SELECT Statement

 SELECT identifies what columns

 FROM identifies which table

SELECT
SELECT *|{[DISTINCT]
*|{[DISTINCT] column|expression
column|expression [alias],...}
[alias],...}
FROM
FROM table
table
[WHERE
[WHERE condition(s)]
condition(s)]
[ORDER
[ORDER BY
BY {column,
{column, expr,
expr, alias}
alias} [ASC|DESC]];
[ASC|DESC]];

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 Selecting All Columns

SELECT *
FROM department;

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 Selecting Specific Columns

SELECT department_id, location_id

FROM department;

Projection

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 Selecting Specific Rows

SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, department_id

FROM employees
WHERE department_id = 90 ;

Selection

Lecture 2 34
 Writing SQL Statements

 SQL statements are not case sensitive

 SQL statements can be on one or more lines
 Keywords cannot be abbreviated or split
across lines
 Clauses are usually placed on separate lines
 Indents are used to enhance readability

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 Arithmetic Expressions

 Create expressions with number and date

data by using arithmetic operators
Operator Description

+ Add

- Subtract

* Multiply

/ Divide

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 Using Arithmetic Operators

SELECT last_name, salary, salary + 300

FROM employees;

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 Operator Precedence

 Multiplication and division take priority over

addition and subtraction.
 Operators of the same priority are evaluated
from left to right.
 Parentheses are used to force prioritized
evaluation and to clarify statements.
_
// ++ _
**
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 Operator Precedence

SELECT last_name, salary, 12*salary+100

FROM employees;

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 Using Parentheses

SELECT last_name, salary, 12*(salary+100)

FROM employees;

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 Null Values
in Arithmetic Expressions
Arithmetic expressions containing a null value
evaluate to null
SELECT last_name, 12*salary*commission_pct
FROM employees;

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 Defining a Column Alias

A column alias:
 Renames a column heading
 Is useful with calculations
 Immediately follows the column name - there can
also be the optional AS keyword between the
column name and alias
 Requires double quotation marks if it contains
spaces or special characters or is case sensitive

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 Using Column Aliases
SELECT last_name AS name, commission_pct AS comm
FROM employees;

SELECT last_name "Name", salary*12 AS "Annual Salary"

FROM employees;

…
Lecture 2 43
 Concatenation Operator

A concatenation operator:
 Concatenates columns or character strings to
other columns
 Is represented by two vertical bars (||)
 Creates a resultant column that is a character
expression

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 Using the Concatenation
Operator

SELECT last_name||job_id AS "Employees"

FROM employees;

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 Literal Character Strings

 A literal is a character, a number, or a date

included in the SELECT list.
 Date and character literal values must be
enclosed within single quotation marks.
 Each character string is output once for each
row returned.

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 Using Literal Character Strings

SELECT last_name ||' is a '||job_id

AS "Employee Details"
FROM employees;

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 Duplicate Rows

 The default display of queries is all rows, including

duplicate rows
SELECT
SELECT department_id
department_id
FROM
FROM employees;
employees;

…
Lecture 2 48
 Eliminating Duplicate Rows

Eliminate duplicate rows by using the DISTINCT

keyword in the SELECT clause.

SELECT DISTINCT department_id

FROM employees;

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 Limiting the Rows Selected

 Restrict the rows returned by using the

WHERE clause.
SELECT *|{[DISTINCT] column|expression [alias],...}
FROM table
[WHERE condition(s)];

 The WHERE clause follows the FROM

clause.

Lecture 2 50
 Character Strings and Dates

 Character strings and date values are

enclosed in single quotation marks.
 Character values are case sensitive, and date
values are format sensitive.
 The default date format is DD-MON-RR.
SELECT last_name, job_id, department_id
FROM employees
WHERE last_name = 'Whalen';

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 Comparison Conditions

Operator Meaning

= Equal to

> Greater than

>= Greater than or equal to

< Less than

<= Less than or equal to

<> Not equal to

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 Using Comparison Conditions

SELECT last_name, salary

FROM employees
WHERE salary <= 3000;

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 Other Comparison Conditions

Operator Meaning

BETWEEN Between two values (inclusive),

...AND...

IN(set) Match any of a list of values

LIKE Match a character pattern

IS NULL Is a null value

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 Using the BETWEEN
Condition
 Use the BETWEEN condition to display
rows based on a range of values.
SELECT last_name, salary
FROM employees
WHERE salary BETWEEN 2500 AND 3500;

Lower limit Upper limit

Lecture 2 55
 Using the IN Condition

 Use the IN membership condition to test for

values in a list
SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary, manager_id
FROM employees
WHERE manager_id IN (100, 101, 201);

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 Using the LIKE Condition

 Use the LIKE condition to perform wildcard

searches of valid search string values.
 Search conditions can contain either literal
characters or numbers:
 % denotes zero or many characters.
 _ denotes one character.
SELECT first_name
FROM employees
WHERE first_name LIKE 'S%';
Lecture 2 57
 Using the LIKE Condition

 You can combine pattern-matching characters.

SELECT last_name
FROM employees
WHERE last_name LIKE '_o%';

 You can use the ESCAPE identifier to search for

the actual % and _ symbols.
SELECT
SELECT employee_id,
employee_id, last_name,
last_name, job_id
job_id FROM
FROM employees
employees
WHERE
WHERE job_id
job_id LIKE
LIKE '%SA\_%'
'%SA\_%' ESCAPE
ESCAPE '\';
'\';
Lecture 2 58
 Using the NULL Conditions

 Test for nulls with the IS NULL operator.

SELECT last_name, manager_id

FROM employees
WHERE manager_id IS NULL;

Lecture 2 59
 Logical Conditions

Operator Meaning

AND Returns TRUE if both component

conditions are true
OR Returns TRUE if either component
condition is true

NOT Returns TRUE if the following

condition is false

Lecture 2 60
 Using the AND Operator

AND requires both conditions to be true.

SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary

FROM employees
WHERE salary >=10000
AND job_id LIKE '%MAN%';

Lecture 2 61
 Using the OR Operator
OR requires either condition to be true.
SELECT employee_id, last_name, job_id, salary
FROM employees
WHERE salary >= 10000
OR job_id LIKE '%MAN%';

Lecture 2 62
 Using the NOT Operator

SELECT last_name, job_id

FROM employees
WHERE job_id
NOT IN ('IT_PROG', 'ST_CLERK', 'SA_REP');

Lecture 2 63
 Rules of Precedence

Order Evaluated Operator

1 Arithmetic operators
2 Concatenation operator
3 Comparison conditions
4 IS [NOT] NULL, LIKE, [NOT] IN
5 [NOT] BETWEEN
6 NOT logical condition
7 AND logical condition
8 OR logical condition
Override rules of precedence by using parentheses.
Lecture 2 64
 Rules of Precedence

SELECT last_name, job_id, salary

FROM employees
WHERE job_id = 'SA_REP'
OR job_id = 'AD_PRES'
AND salary > 15000;

Lecture 2 65
 Rules of Precedence

Use parentheses to force priority

SELECT last_name, job_id, salary

FROM employees
WHERE (job_id = 'SA_REP'
OR job_id = 'AD_PRES')
AND salary > 15000;

Lecture 2 66
 ORDER BY Clause
 Sort rows with the ORDER BY clause
 ASC: ascending order, default
 DESC: descending order
SELECT last_name, job_id, department_id, hire_date
FROM employees
ORDER BY hire_date ;

…
Lecture 2 67
 Sorting in Descending Order

SELECT last_name, job_id, department_id, hire_date

FROM employees
ORDER BY hire_date DESC ;

Lecture 2 68
 Sorting by Column Alias

SELECT employee_id, last_name, salary*12 annsal

FROM employees
ORDER BY annsal;

Lecture 2 69
 Sorting by Multiple Columns
 The order of ORDER BY list is the order of sort
 You can sort by a column that is not in the SELECT list
SELECT last_name, department_id, salary
FROM employees
ORDER BY department_id, salary DESC;

…
Lecture 2 70
 Q&A

SELECT
SELECT *|{[DISTINCT]
*|{[DISTINCT] column|expression
column|expression [alias],...}
[alias],...}
FROM
FROM table
table
[WHERE
[WHERE condition(s)]
condition(s)]
[ORDER
[ORDER BY
BY {column,
{column, expr,
expr, alias}
alias} [ASC|DESC]];
[ASC|DESC]];

Lecture 2 71