TEM-515: STATISTICAL

ANALYSES WITH COMPUTER

APPLICATION

Lecture Series 2: Descriptive Statistics

Lecture 4: Presentation of Data
Instructor: Dr. Zahara Batool
Date: 13.03.2018
Content Outline:
 Measure of central Tendency
 Measure of Dispersion

Data Summary and Presentation

Introduction
 Charts and graphs are used to convey information in a way
that a user can get an immediate overall impression about
the data. It should be clear exactly what a chart or graph is
about and so should have a fully descriptive heading or title if
it is to be of any use.
Basic Graph Types
 Line Graphs
 Stem-and-Leaf Plots
 Pie Charts
 Box-and-Whisker Plots
 Frequency Tables to Organise and Display Data
 Histograms
 Data Display Choices
 Scatter Plots
 Displaying by Type of Data
Which graph to use?

 Depends on type of data

 Depends on what you want to illustrate
Remember
 Note Excel will create any graph that you specify, even if the graph
that you select is not appropriate for the data. Remember -
consider the type of data that you have before selecting your
graph.
 Therefore, a researcher should be able to recognize when a
variable is categorical or quantitative.
 Choose an appropriate display for a categorical variable and a
quantitative variable
Introduction
Type of Data

Qualitative (categorical) Quantitative (Numerical)

Continuous (Measure)

Discrete (Count)

Choosing an appropriate display for a categorical variable and a

quantitative variable is extremely important.
Qualitative Data
As discussed in earlier lectures, Qualitative data is usually treated
as Categorical Data which describes the quality of something in a
non-numerical format. It is analyzed using:
 Frequency tables
 Modes - most frequently occurring

 Graphs Used for Categorical/qualitative Data include: Bar

Charts, Pie Charts
Quantitative Data
 Quantitative or numerical data arise when the observations are
frequencies or measurements.

 The data are said to be discrete if the measurements are integers

(e.g. number of employees of a company, number of incorrect
answers on a test, number of participants in a program…)

 The data are said to be continuous if the measurements can take

on any value, usually within some range (e.g. weight). Age and
income are continuous quantitative variables. For continuous
variables, arithmetic operations such as differences and averages
make sense.
Quantitative Data - Analysis
Quantitative Data Analysis can take almost any form:
 Create groups or categories and generate frequency tables.

 All descriptive statistics can be applied.

Graphs for Measured/Continuous Quantitative Data

include: Histograms, Stem-and-Leaf plots, Dot Plots, Line
Graphs, Box Plots, Scatter Plots
Pie Charts
 A circle is divided proportionately and shows what percentage of the
whole falls into each category or simply it is a type of graph which
shows relative sizes of data - Used for categorical and discrete
numerical data.
 Pie charts show the size of items in one data series, proportional to
the sum of the items.
 Data is Counts or Percentages

 It is visually very useful and simple to understand

Pie Charts
Consider using a pie chart when:
 You have only one data series that you want to plot.
 None of the values that you want to plot is negative.
 None of the values that you want to plot is a zero (0) value.
 You don't have more than seven categories.
 The categories represent parts of the whole pie.
 Worked Example
Categorical Data (Single Variable)
Drivers Young Middle Aged Old
Frequency (COUNTS) 20 50 5

Relative Frequency 20/75 = .27 50/75 = .66 5/75 = .07

Drivers
Old
7% Young
27%

Middle aged
67%
Bar Charts
 Bar charts also show percentages in various categories and allow

comparison between categories - used for categorical and discrete

numerical data

 The horizontal scale shows categories.

 The vertical scale is frequencies, relative frequencies, or percentages.

 Bar charts can be used to represent two categorical variables

simultaneously.

 Used to illustrate the differences in percentages (or counts) between

categories.
Bar Charts
The key things to consider are that there must
 be gaps between the bars (no matter what the science and
geography departments say!)
 Labels should show what each bar represents. The vertical
axis represents the frequency
 All boxes should have the same width
 Leave gaps between the boxes (because there is no
connection between them)
 Boxes can be in any order.
Bar Charts
Contingency Table
(How data is distributed across multiple variables)

Class

First Second Third Crew Total

ALIVE 203 118 178 212 711

Survival
DEAD 122 167 528 673 1490

Total 325 285 706 885 2201

Types of Bar Charts
 Horizontal bar chart
 Useful when the category names are long

 Side by side column

 Graphs 2 or more attributes for each variable

 Stacked bar chart

 For 2 or more attributes compared among 2 or more categories
 Types of Bar Charts
Clustered bar and clustered bar in 3-
D.
 Clustered bar charts compare
values across categories. In a
clustered bar chart, the categories
are typically organized along the
vertical axis, and the values along
the horizontal axis.
 A clustered bar in 3-D chart
displays the horizontal rectangles in
3-D format; it does not display the
data on three axes.
 Types of Bar Charts
Stacked bar and stacked bar in
3-D.    
Stacked bar charts show the
relationship of individual items to
the whole.

A stacked bar in 3-D chart

displays the horizontal rectangles
in 3-D format; it does not display
the data on three axes.
 Types of Bar Charts
100% stacked bar and 100%
stacked bar in 3-D    
This type of chart compares the
percentage that each value
contributes to a total across
categories.

A 100% stacked bar in 3-D chart

displays the horizontal rectangles
in 3-D format; it does not display
the data on three axes.
Line Graphs
A line graph is a series of connected points that displays data
or information that changes over time.

MSc Statistical Class

10 9
8
8 7
6 5.7 5.7
6
5.4 5.11

0
First Week Second Week Third Week Fourth Week
Attendance Height
Line Graphs
A line graph is a one way to show a relationship b/w two different
variables. It allows to visually see and understand a relationship b/w two
variables.

It is vital to make clear that line graphs are NOT the same as bar charts.
They do not show frequency based data, but show how one quantity
varies for changes in another value.

The thing that is changed by the experimenter is called the

independent (or explanatory) variable, the thing that changes as a
result is called the dependent (or response) variable (because it
depends on the thing being changed).
Line Graphs
 Line graphs are often used to plot changes in data over time (or ordered variables),

such as monthly temperature changes or daily changes in stock market prices.

 Similar to most other graphs, line graphs have a vertical axis and a horizontal axis.

If you are plotting changes in data over time, time is plotted along the horizontal or

x-axis and your other data, such as rainfall amounts is plotted as individual points

along the vertical or y-axis.

 When the individual data points are connected by lines, they clearly show changes

in your data - such as how a chemical changes with changing atmospheric

pressure. You can use these changes to find trends in your dada and possibly to

predict future results.

Line Graphs
 Variables must be Independent and dependent variables
 Variables must be quantitative – so that they can be plotted

 Variables can be Discrete or Continuous

 Continuous variables can take a value based on a measurement
at any point along a continuum e.g. height, time, age, and
temperature.
 Discrete variables can take a value based on a count from a set
of distinct whole values e.g. the number of registered cars,
number of business locations, and number of children in a family,
all of which measured as whole units (i.e. 1, 2, 3 cars). It has no
mathematical relationship.
Discrete or Continuous Data?
Usually the independent variable is continuous and it is therefore
proper to join the data points by a smoothly changing curve.

If the independent variable is discrete then just the actual data

points should be drawn and no curve or line should really be
drawn between them.

This is to stop users of the data thinking that they can interpolate
information from the graph!
Discrete or Continuous Data?
 Sometimes it isn’t obvious whether some data is discrete or
continuous. For instance time or money can be considered as one
or the other. It depends on how it is used. For instance you might
count how many seconds elapse between two events.
 If you allow fractions of a second to be appropriate then you
should consider the time to be continuous, if fractions of a second
are inappropriate then you might consider the time to be a
discrete quantity. The same idea applies to dates. It depends
upon what context you consider appropriate. Try to  consider if it
is meaningful or allowable to have fractions of the time or date?
Line Graph for Continuous Variables
Distance travelled x No. of trips
12

10

0
2.5 3.8 7.5 10.5

No. of trips
Line Graph for Discrete Variables
No. of accidents x Distance travelled
12

10

0
4 6 9 11

Distance travelled
Worked Example
 The Electronic Energies Alliance recorded the average cost of one gallon
of gasoline in the United States for the years 2000-2007. Present the
information on the data table on a line graph.
Year Average Cost of One Gallon of Gasoline
2000 $ 1.57
2001 $ 1.10
2002 $ 1.46
2003 $ 1.59
2004 $ 2.03
2005 $ 2.25
2006 $ 3.30
2007 $ 3.00
Creating a Line Graph
1. Draw the horizontal (x) and vertical (y) axis.
2. Give the graph the title “Change in Cost of Petrol 2008-2013.”
3. Label the horizontal axis “Year.”
4. Label the vertical axis “Cost of Petrol.”
5. Look at the range in data and decide how the units on the vertical axis (y)
should be labelled. In this case, label the vertical axis 0 – 3.5 by 0.5.
6. Plot the price of gasoline for each year on the horizontal axis. For
example, put a point slightly above 1.5 to show that the cost of one gallon
of gas in the year 2000 was $1.59. Place a point slightly above 1 to show
that they cost of one gallon of gas in the year 2001 was $1.10. Use a
straight edge to connect the points as you go.
Creating a Line Graph
Average Cost of One Gallon of Gasoline
3.5
3
2.5
Average Cost of One
2 Gallon of Gasoline
1.5
1
0.5
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Worked Example
 UET Lahore Transport Administration Unit wants to find out about
where the students of the university are coming from. The unit
gathered following data about the distance (in kilometre) that
students commuted to get to the university.
14, 6, 3, 2, 4, 15, 11, 8, 1, 7, 2, 1, 3, 4, 10, 22, 20

 The unit wants to create a graph that helps in understanding the

spread of distances (and the median distance) that people travel.
What kind of graph should it create?
The Box Plot
 The box plots, which are graphically very simple, are based on Median, a
measure of location and the Interquartile Range (IQR), a measure of
data’s variability.
 Statistics assumes that your data points (the numbers in your list) are
clustered around some central value. The "box" in the box-and-whisker
plot contains, and thereby highlights, the middle half of these data points.
 They are informative and effective for comparing two or more data
sets/distribution.
The Box Plot
 A box plot is constructed by drawing a rectangle (the box) with the
ends (called the hinges) drawn at the lower and upper quartiles
(Q1 and Q3).
 The median of the data is shown in the box usually by a ‘+’ sign.

 The straight lines (called the whiskers) are drawn from each hinge
to the most extreme observations.
 The entire graph is called a Box and Whisker plot.

 If one whisker is loner, the distribution of data is skewed in the

direction of longer whisker.
 When two or more distributions are to be compared by drawing
box plots, the scale of measurement is usually plotted vertically.
 The Box Plot
Range

Median
Min. (+) Whisker Max.

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Worked Example
 UET Lahore Transport Administration unit wants to find out about
where the students of the university are coming from. The unit
gathered following data about the distance (in kilometre) that
students commuted to get to the university.
 14, 6, 3, 2, 4, 15, 11, 8, 1, 7, 2, 1, 3, 4, 10, 22, 20

 The unit wants to create a graph that helps in understanding the

spread of distances (and the median distance) that people travel.
What kind of graph should it create?
Solution
 14, 6, 3, 2, 4, 15, 11, 8, 1, 7, 2, 1, 3, 4, 10, 22, 20

i. 1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 15, 20, 22

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Lecture 4: Presentation of Data

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