2.

PHYSICAL AND INDEX

PROPERTIES OF SOILS

The Objectives of this chapter is to introduce you to physical

properties of soil, three phase diagram of soil, index

parameters of soil and soil grain size distribution.

Learning outcomes
When you complete this chapter, you should be able to do the
following:
 Know physical properties of soil

 Determine the proportions of the main constituents in a soil.

Soil Composition

-Solids ,Water and Air

Naturally soil will be found in
 Dry state

 Partially Saturated state

 Fully Saturated state

 Submerged state

Soil mass is generally a three phase system

For the purpose of defining the physical and index

properties of soil it is more convenient to represent the
soil skeleton by a block diagram or phase diagram.
Weight - Volume Relationships:
• Weight , Wt = Ww + Ws

• Volume , Vt = Vv + Vs = Va + Vw + Vs

• The following relationships can be established

• Void Ratio (e) = Vv/Vs

• Porosity (n) = (Vv/V ) X100

• Degree of Saturation (S) = (Vw/Vv)X100

• Water content () = (Ww/Ws)x100

1. Weighing of soil sample
in its natural or wet state

2.Drying the sample at a

Equipments Required to
determine Water content
temperature of 1050c
 Unit Weight – Density

 Total - Unit Weight of Soil Mass (t)

t = W / V

(This is also known as Bulk unit weight of soil)

 Dry Unit Weight (dry)

dry = Ws /V
 Saturated Unit Weight (sat)

sat = W /V, where w is the saturated weight of the

soil mass

 Unit Weight of Solids (s)

s = Ws /Vs

 Submerged Unit Weight (b)

b = sat - 
Total down ward force = Ws +Ww

Total up ward force(up thrust) = v 

Submerged wt =( Ws +Ww ) - v 

b = W /V - 

b = sat - 
 Specific Gravity (Gs)

•It is a measure of and a means of expressing the

Ws / Vs
heaviness of material 

• The specific gravity of the solids is expressed by

Gs = s / w
. Laboratory Determination of Specific Gravity ,

The specific gravity determination of a sample of soil is

made by displacement in water using pycnometer

(volumetric bottle).
 Let:
• Weight of pycnometer
bottle + water = W2
•Weight of pycnometer bottle
+ water + soil = W1
•Weight of dry soil =Ws
Let the weight of displaced
water =X
•Then

W2 + Ws = W1 + X
X = Ws + W2 – W1

Volume of W s  W2  W1
displaced water =
 T
  T
GT =

T = GT 
Ws  W2  W1
Volume of displaced water =
GT  
This is equal to the volume of solids

Ws  W2  W1
Therefore, Volume of solids (Vs) =
GT  

WS
 Ws  W2  W1  W s GT



 =
GS   GT    W s  W 2  W1

Interrelationships of Different Parameters
•Relationship between e and n e= Vv/ Vs =Vv/(V- Vv)
e (V- Vv) = Vv
e n eV = Vv(1+e)
n = e= e/(1+e ) = V/Vv
1 e 1 n n = e/(1+e )
n (1+e ) = e
•Relationships Between e, Gs, S and  n = e( 1-n)
e =n/(1-n)

Case 1. When Partially Saturated (0 < S < 100%)

 Gs or e =
 Gs
S =
e S

Case 2. When Fully Saturated (i.e. S = 100%)

e = Gs
• Unit Weight of Soil Expressed In terms of Other
Parameters

• Case 1. When Partially Saturated (i.e. 0<S<100%)

t = G s   (1   )
1 e

substituting  = eS
Gs
G s  eS
t = 
1 e
• Case 2. When Fully Saturated (i.e. S = 100%)

  (G s  e)
sat =
1 e
• Case 3. When the Soil is Dry (i.e. S = 0%)

  Gs
dry =
1 e
• Case 4. When the Soil is Submerged

b =   (Gs  1)
1 e
Relative Density (Dr)

•The looseness or denseness of sandy soils can be

expressed numerically by the relative density (Dr),
defined by the equation.

Dr = (emax-e)/(emax-emin)

In which

emax = Void ratio of the soil in its loosest state

emin = Void ratio of the soil in its densest state

e = Void ratio of the soil in the field

  Md  (   ) 
Dr =  d md
 x 100
 d  ( Md   md ) 
 

where Md = Maximum unit dry weight of soil

md = Minimum unit dry weight of soil

d = Dry unit of soil in place

Qualitative Descriptions of Granular Soil Deposits
(Terzaghi and Peck)

Relative Density Description of Soil

(%) Deposit

0 to 15 Very loose
15 to 35 Loose
35 to 65 Medium
65 to 85 Dense
85 to 100 Very dense
Example : Given 1870g of wet soil compacted into a mold with a volume of 1000 cm3
.The soil is put into the oven and dried to a constant weight of 1677 g . The specific
gravity of the soil is assumed to be 2.66.

Compute the following quantities:

a) Water content. (b) Dry unit weight .(c) Porosity of the soil. (d) Degree of saturation
and (e) Saturated unit weight of the soil.

Solution:

a) Water content

Ww = W-Ws = 1870 – 1677 = 193 g

Water content(w) = (Ww/Ws) * 100 = 193/1677 * 100 =11.51%

b) Dry unit weight

dry = Ws /V = (1677/ 1000)* 9.807 = 16.45KN/m3

(c) Porosity of the soil(n)

n = (Vv/V ) X100,

but from Gs we have, Vs = Ws / Gs w = 1677/(2.66*1) = 630.5 cm3

Vv = 1000 – 630.5 = 369.5 cm3

n = (Vv/V ) X100 = 369.5/1000 *100 = 36.95%

d) Degree of saturation:

S = w Gs / e

e =n/(1-n) = 0.3695/( 1- 0.3695) = 0.586

S = w Gs / e = 11.5 * 2.66/ 0.586 = 52.2%

(e) Saturated unit weight of the soil

sat = w (Gs + e)/(1+e)

= 9.807( 2.66+ 0.586)/ 1.586

= 20.07 KN/m3
 GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION

• In this system soils are split into coarse-grained non-

cohesive, Fine-grained cohesive ( the soil grain stick

together so that some force is required to separate them

in dry state , the soil is cohesive otherwise non- cohesive)

• Most systems of soil classification depend to some extent

upon the distribution of various sized particles in the soil.

• For coarse-grained material this distribution may be
determined by sieving, and for finer particles a
method of measuring the rate of settlement in water
is used.

• The determination of particle size distribution by

these methods is known as Mechanical analysis.

• Mechanical analysis can be divided into

Sieve analysis

Hydrometer analysis
 Sieve Analysis
• This is carried out by sieving a known dry weight of
sample through the set of sieves placed one below the
other, so that the openings decrease in size from the
top sieve down, with a pan at the bottom of the stock.

• The whole set of sieves is given a horizontal shaking

for about ten minutes until the weight of soil remaining
on each sieve reaches a constant value.

• By determining the weight of soil sample left on each

sieve, the following calculations can be made.
 Wt. of s oil retained
 Percentage retained on any sieve =  100
Total soil weight

 Cumulative percentage retained on any sieve =

Sum of percentage retained on all any coarser sieves

 Percentage finer than any sieve size =

100 percent minus cumulative percentage retained

 Hydrometer Analysis
• Soil particle sizes smaller than 0.075 mm
(passing 200 mesh sieve) are determined by the
so-called hydrometer method

• It is based on the process of sedimentation of

soil particles in water by gravity.

• Sedimentation by gravity is the separation of

particles of various sizes by their velocity.

• Coarse soil suspension settles out more rapidly

than the finer ones of the same specific
gravity.
-The hydrometer method of analysis is based on Stoke’s
law of settlement i.e. small spheres in a liquid settle at
different rate according to the size of the sphere. The
terminal velocity of a spherical soil particle settling in
water is expressed by Stoke’s law as
 s  2
V D
18

where s = Unit weight of spherical grains

 = Unit weight of water
 = Viscosity of water
D = Diameter of the spherical particles
• Laboratory Procedure for Hydrometer Analysis
• The effect of influence of one particle over the other is
minimized by limiting the mass of soil for sedimentation
analysis to 50 g in a sedimentation jar of 1000 cm3
capacity.

• 50 gm of soil passing sieve No. 200 are agitated with water

and dispersing agent in 1000 cc jar.

• The density of the suspension is then measured with

streamlined hydrometer at given intervals of time.

• The hydrometer reading, Zr, is observed at the surface of

the fluid on a scale of the stem and this indicates the
density of the suspension.
The suspension is mixed thoroughly by placing
the palm of hand on the open end of the jar
and turning it upside down and back a few
times. The jar is then placed on a table ,
and the stop watch is started.
 Readings are usually taken at intervals of ¼, ½, 1 and

2 minutes with the hydrometer remaining in the

suspension all the time.

• For later intervals, that is 5, 10, 20 etc. minutes

the hydrometer is put in the suspension just before

reading and removed after each reading.

VH (b)
Z’r
Aj Z’r
Zr
VH
2A j
Center of volume of
hydrometer
 Zr =H+1/2h

H
Z’r Zr
VH/2Aj
h

Z’r = Zr - VH/2Aj =H+1/2(h - VH/Aj)

Zr

VH/2Aj

Hydrometer reading
Calibration Chart
If a soil particle of size “D” falls through a distance
Zr in time t, its velocity will be given as
Zr
V 
t

Using Stoke’s law

 s   2
V D
18
For early readings

V 18  18  Zr
D   
 s    s   t
 For later readings
18  z r  VH / 2 A j
D 
 s  t

•Zr can be obtained from the calibration curve, which is

a plot of Zr against hydrometer reading.
• The percentage finer, N, can be obtained from
Gs  V 
N  
Gs  1       r  r
    100
 WS 
Where : Gs – specific gravity of solids,
V- volume of suspension,
r – Hydrometer reading in suspension
rw - Hydrometer reading in water at the
temperature as suspension.
•For combined analysis (i.e. sieve analysis +
hydrometer analysis) the percentage finer, N, can be
calculated from the following equation.

N  W1
N'
W

where
W1 = Weight of soil finer than No. 200 sieve
W = Total soil weight used in combined analysis
N’ = Percentage finer based on entire soil sample, W
• The results of grain size analysis presented in the

form curves, percent finer versus particle diameter.

• The shapes of the curves indicate the nature of the

soil tested. On the basis of the shapes one can

classify soils as

Uniformly graded or poorly graded,

Well graded,

Gap graded
• Uniformly graded soils are represented by nearly vertical lines as
shown by curve. This represents type of soil in which most of
the soil grains are of the same size

• Such soils will easily be displaced under load and have less
supporting power.

• A well-graded soil, represented by curve , possesses a wide

range of particles sizes ranging from gravel to clay size particles.

• Such soil is relatively stable, resistant to erosion, can

readily be compacted to a very dense condition, and will
develop high shearing resistance and bearing capacity.

• A gap-graded soil, as shown by curve  has some of the sizes of

particles missing. On this curve the soil particles falling the range
XY are missing.
 SOIL CONSISTENCY
• Consistency is a term used to indicate the degree of
firmness of fine-grained soils.

• The consistency of natural fine-grained soil deposits is

expressed by such terms as soft, stiff and hard.

• The physical properties of fine-grained soils greatly differ

at different water contents. Soil that is soft at a higher
percentage of water content becomes hard with the
decrease of water content.

• Consistency of a soil can be expressed in terms of

Atterberg limits of soils.
• The Swedish Scientist, Atterberg (1911), developed a
method of describing quantitatively the effect of varying
water content on the consistency of fine-grained soils.

• He established the four states of soil consistency, which

are called the liquid, the plastic, the semi-solid, and the
solid states.

• He also proposed a series of tests for determining the

boundaries known as Atterberg limits between the physical
states of soil.

• Each boundary or limit is defined by the water content

that produces a specified consistency.
volume

Plastic State Liquid State

Solid Semi- solid

State State

s p l Water content
• Liquid limit is the moisture content at which the soil
suspension passes from no strength to a very small
strength.

• Plastic limit is the moisture content at which the

sample, when it is rolled into a thread, starts to
crumble rather than distort plastically.

• Shrinkage limit is the moisture content of a soil at

which further reduction of the moisture does not
bring any change in the volume.
 Determination of Atterberg Limits

Liquid Limit (ℓ)

• The limits are determined on that portion of soil finer than a
No. 40 sieve (ASTM).

• About 100 gm of soil is mixed thoroughly with distilled water

into a uniform paste.

•A portion of the paste is placed in the cup and leveled.

• A groove is cut at the center of the soil pat, using the

standard grooving tool .

•The handle is next turned at a rate of about two revolutions

per second and the number of blows necessary to close the
groove along the bottom for a distance of 12 mm is counted.
•The water content of the soil taken near the closed
groove is found out.

•The water content of the soil in the cup is altered and

the tests repeated.

•At least four tests should be carried out by adjusting the

water contents in such a way that the number of blows
required to close the groove may fall within the range of
10 to 40 blows.

•A plot of water content against the log of blows is made.

• The curve so obtained is known as a “flow curve”.

•The water content corresponding to 25 blows is termed as

liquid limit.
(a) Liquid limit device, (b) ASTM Grooving tool
(c) Soil pat before test ,(d) Soil pat after test
 7

6

Water 5
content

4
ℓ

3

2

1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Number of blows

Flow curve for liquid limit

• Plastic Limit (p)

• About 15 gm of soil passing through sieve No. 40

(ASTM), mixed thoroughly with water.

• The soil is rolled on a glass plate with the hand, until

it is about 3 mm in diameter.

• This procedure of mixing and rolling is repeated till

the soil shows signs of crumbling when the diameter
is 3 mm.

• The water content of the crumbled portion of the

thread is determined. This is called as plastic limit.
• Shrinkage Limit (s)

• For determination of shrinkage limit, a container of

known volume V1 is filled with plastic soil in the
saturated state.

• The weight of the saturated soil is determined.

• The specimen is dried gradually first in air and then

in an oven at a constant temperature of 1050c.

• After oven drying the specimen weighed.

• Following the weighing, its volume is determined by

displacement in mercury.
• Fig. a represents saturated soil in a container of
volume V1
• Fig. b represents the saturated soil at shrinkage limit
• Fig. c represents the dry soil after oven drying.
V1 – V2

Ww
W1 V1
V2
Ws Ws

(a) (b) (c)

Ww W1  Ws    (V1  V2 )
Shrinkage limit     100
Ws Ws
• Plasticity Index, p =l - p
• This indicates
– The presence of clay in a given soil
– the range of water content over which the soil
exhibits plasticity.
• In general, a high numerical value of plasticity
index means a high percentage of clay fraction

Plasticity Index plasticity

0 Non-plastic
<7 Low plastic
7-17 Medium
>17 High plastic
 Plasticity Index (PI)
Plasticity Index = Liquid Limit – Plastic Limit

water content
0 Shrinkage Plastic Liquid
limit limit limit