Construction Techniques, Equipments & Practice: Welcome
Construction Techniques, Equipments & Practice: Welcome
PRACTICE
Welcome
Welcome
UNIT-3
SUB STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION
1) Techniques of
a. Box Jacking
b. Pipe Jacking
2) Underwater construction of
a. Diaphragm walls
b. Basement
3) Tunneling Techniques
4) Piling Techniques
5) Driving well
6) Caisson
7) Sinking Cofferdam
8) Cable Anchoring
9) Grouting
Working:
Force the pipes into the subsoil by means of a series of hydraulics jacks.
Excavate as the driving proceeds, from within the pipes by hand or machine.
The leading pipe is usually fitted with a steel shield or hood to aid the
driving process.
This is a very safe method since the dangers of collapsing excavations are
eliminated.
There is no disruption of surface.
Stop-end pipes are placed vertically at each end of the primary panel to form
joints for adjacent secondary panels.
The slurry that is displaced by the concrete is saved and for subsequent panel
excavations.
The finished wall may be cantilever or require anchors or props for lateral
support.
THE PRECAST DIAPHRAGM WALL
A continuous trench or longer panel is excavated under self-hardening
cement –bentonite slurry.
Bentonite slurry is a combination of sodium bentonite and slurry.
A slurry is a thin sloppy mud or cement or, in extended use, any fluid
mixture of a pulverized solid with water, often used as a convenient way
of handling solids in bulk.
The slurry is retarded to remain fluid during construction.
After a sufficient length of excavation is complete, a crane lifts the precast
wall section into the trench.
The cement bentonite slurry sets to form the final composite wall.
Alternatively, the trench is excavated under bentonite slurry, which is then
displaced with cement bentonite slurry.
APPLICATIONS:
In congested areas.
In close proximity to existing structures with minimal loss of support to existing
foundations.
CONCLUSION:
The diaphragm wall technique is a tried and true construction method, which
provides unequal support of existing foundations during adjacent construction
operations.
BASEMENTS
Methods:
Open excavation with sloped sides.
Vertical cuts supported by temporary supports such as sheet piles or
timber.
Vertical cuts supported by diaphragm walls, along with intermediate
piles & floor slabs which permit top-down construction.
Vertical cuts supported by diaphragm walls which become a part of
the final basement structure.
Prefabrication of the basement structure above the ground & sinking
it into the soil.
Tunneling Techniques
• A tunnel construction is an underground passage provided beneath earth
surface or water.
• Different methods of tunnel construction and their details are discussed.
• In most of the cases tunnel construction is expensive but it saves time and
provides comfort.
• Large excavation of soil or rock etc. is necessary for a tunnel construction.
With the availability of modern equipment, excavation and backfilling has
become easier.
• Tunnels can be used for roadways, railways and even as waterways also.
• In many cities, underground metro rail networks work inside a tunnel.
• Methods of Tunnel Construction
• There are various types of construction techniques developed for
construction of tunnels which are discussed below:
• Cut and cover method
• Bored tunnel method
• Clay kicking method
• Shaft method
• Pipe jacking method
• Box jacking method
• Underwater tunnels
Cut and Cover Method of Tunnel Construction
•Cut and cover method of tunnel construction is generally used to build
shallow tunnels.
•In this method, a trench is cut in the soil and it is covered by some support
which can be capable of bearing load on it.
•The cutting can be done by two methods.
One is bottom up method in which a tunnel is excavated under the
surface using ground support.
Another method is top-down method in which side support walls are
constructed first by slurry walling method or contiguous bored piling.
•Then roof is located on the top of the walls and excavation is carried out.
Finally, base slab is constructed. Most of the Underground metro rail stations
are constructed using cut and cover method.
Cut and Cover Method of Tunnel Construction
Bored Tunnel Method
•Bored tunnel method is modern technology. In this case, tunnel boring
machines are used which automatically work and makes the entire tunneling
process easier.
•It is also quicker process and good method to build tunnel in high traffic
areas.
•Tunnels boring machines (TBM’s) are available in different types suitable for
different ground conditions.
•These machines can be used in difficult conditions such as below the water
table etc.
•A special pressurized compartment is provided for TBM to work in below
water table conditions.
•The workers should not enter that compartment except for repair works.
•Care should be taken while TBM is in working conditions.
•The only difficulty with this TBM is its heavy weight. So, transportation is
difficult and costlier.
Bored Tunnel Method
Clay Kicking Method of Tunnel Construction
•This method is used for strong clayey soil conditions.
•This is an old method and used for small works like sewage pipes
installations etc.
•In this method, a hole is excavated into the ground and after some depth
tunnel is excavated which is done by the clay kicker which lies 0n a plank at
45o angle.
•An excavating tool is provided under clay kicker foot. The excavated using
that tool is collected by other workers. This is well famous because it is the
method used by Englishmen to put mines under the German empire during
First World War.
Shaft Method of Tunnel Construction
•In this method tunnel is constructed at greater depth from the ground surface.
•The shaft is built up to the depth where tunnel is required.
•Shaft is a permanent structure which is like well with concrete walls. At
required depth, tunnels are excavated using TBM’s.
•Shafts are provided at both inlet and outlet of tunnels.
•Intermediate shafts are also provided if tunnel is too long.
•After the construction process,
these shafts can also be used for
ventilation purpose as well as
emergency exits.
Pipe Jacking Method of Tunnel Construction
•Pipe jacking method is used to construct tunnels under existing structures like
road ways, railways etc.
•In this method, specially made pipes are driven into underground using
hydraulic jacks.
•Maximum size of 3.2-meter diameter is allowed for tunnels.
Box Jacking Method of Tunnel Construction
•Box jacking method is similar to pipe jacking, but in this case instead of
pipes, specially made boxes are driven into the soil.
•A cutting head is provided at the front side of the box.
•Excavated matter is collected within the box.
•Larger size tunnels can be excavated using box jacks up to 20 meters.
Underwater Tunnel Construction
•An underwater tunnel is a structure which is built under water to make a way
through it.
•If construction of bridge is not possible then under water tunnel is good
choice.
•Under water tunneling is costly process but have advantages over bridge or
ferry links.
•Immersed tubes or bored tunnel are two most common methods which are
used to construct under water tunnels.
Piling techniques
• Piling is a type of Foundation which is defined as a column
supported type of foundation, may be cast in-situ or pre-cast.
• It may be made of Timber, Concrete, Steel, or combination of
any of them
• Pile foundation is adopted when the loose soil extends to a
great depth.
• The load is transmitted by the piles to the hard stratum below
or it is resisted by the friction developed on the sides of piles.
• Piling process involves lifting and holding the pile into
position and driving until it stops due to hard strata or reaches
to a specified depth.
TYPES OF PILES
BASED ON FUNCTIONS BASED ON CONSTRUCTION
Load Bearing Piles Sheet Piles
BASED ON CONSTRUCTION
Bored Piles
Large Diameter (>600mm), Small Diameter (300-600mm)
Tubed Augered Piles, Continuous Flight Auger Piles (CFA),
Tripod, Minipiles, Augured Displacement
Driven Piles
Cast in Place, Cast in Place (permanent casing/shell), Pre-
cast, Steel, Timber, Quiet Piling Techniques
END BEARING PILES
End bearing piles are those which terminate in hard,
relatively impenetrable material such as rock or very
dense sand and gravel. They derive most of their
carrying capacity from the resistance of the stratum at
the toe of the pile.
FRICTION PILES
Friction piles obtain a greater part of their carrying capacity by skin
friction or adhesion. This tends to occur when piles do not reach an
impenetrable stratum but are driven for some distance into a
penetrable soil.
Their carrying
capacity is
derived partly
from end
bearing and
partly from
skin friction
between the
embedded surface of the soil and the surrounding soil.
TYPES OF PILES
Displacement piles:
Displacement piles cause the soil to be displaced radially as well
as vertically as the pile shaft is driven or jacked into the ground.
Non-Displacement piles:
Non-displacement piles soil is removed and the resulting hole
filled with concrete or a pre-cast concrete pile is dropped into
the hole and grouted in.
METHODS OF PILE DRIVING
1. Rotary Bored Piling
Compact powerful track
and lorry mounted rotary
bored pile equipment
enable Foundation Piling
to provide edge of highway,
bridge abutment and
restricted access bored
piling solutions.
Advantages:
Fast, Cost Effective, On-site relocation
ROTARY BORED PILING
Capabilities
Diameters: mm; depths up to 35 m.
Oscillated casing, polymers or bentonite.
Alternative engineered solutions.
Applications
Continuous bored pile walls.
Hard / soft secant bored pile walls.
Piling into rock or banded rock strata.
Piling adjacent to roads and railways.
Installation of permanent liners and Kingpost walls
2. FLIGHT AUGER BORED PILES
It is the quietest form of
piling and is suitable for
forming piles in most
types of soil.
The use of these
techniques in low
headroom and restricted
access has in the past
been limited to a maximum of 300 mm. Advances in rig
technology have revolutionised our capabilities.
FLIGHT AUGER BORED PILES
Capabilities
Low vibration.
Restricted access and head room.
Casing installation to 15 m and bored depth up to 30 m.
Diameters all sizes up to 600 mm
Applications
Restricted access sites noise and vibration sensitive work.
Inter-bedded sequences of clays and sands.
Water bearing cohesion less strata.
Bearing piles.
Small restricted access retaining walls
3. TRIPOD BORED PILING
Using sectional temporary casing to support unstable ground
Employed in a wide
range of ground
conditions providing an
effective solution to the
problems associated with
pile installation for restricted access and limited headroom
sites where high loads are to be supported.
Most components can be manually handled and very little
mechanical assistance is require to negotiate stairways and
corridors for making tripod rigs.
TRIPOD BORED PILING
Capabilities
•Diameters from 250 mm to 750 mm.
•Depths up to 35 m
•Sectional casing
Methods of installation of Piles
•Dropping weight
•Diesel Hammer
•Vibratory methods
•Jacking Methods
4. DROPPING WEIGHT HAMMER
The dropping weight or drop hammer is the most commonly used
method of insertion of displacement piles
A weight approximately half that of the pile is raised a suitable
distance in a guide and released to strike the pile head
When driving a hollow pile tube the weight usually acts on a plug
at the top of the pile tube, thus reducing any excess stress along
the length of the tube during insertion.
Variants of the simple drop hammer are the single acting and
double acting hammers.
These are mechanically driven by steam, by compressed air or
hydraulically
DROPPING WEIGHT HAMMER
Provides a comparatively sharp edge to cut the soil below during sinking
operation.
Curb:
1. It has a two-fold purpose.
Sand Filling:
It is supposed to affored some relief to the steining by transferring directly a portion
of load from well cap to the bottom plug.
Top Plug:
Serves as shuttering for laying the well cap.
Reinforcement:
Provides requisite strength to the structure during sinking & service.
Well Cap:
To transfer the loads & moments from the pier to the well or wells
below.
PROBLEMS IN WELL SINKING:
1. Sand Blowing:
The trouble of sand blowing takes place during the process of dewatering of the well
passing through sandy strata.
The fall of sand in the caisson is so sudden and huge that it amount to a depth of about
3 to 15 m of sand.
2. Tilting of well:
When a well sinks more or one side than the other then it is known to have tilted.
The tilting is mainly due to unequal dredging and non uniform bearing power of soil.
Following method may be employed to bring tilted well in
position
Control of dredging Eccentric Loading
Water Jetting Pulling the well
Pushing by Jacks Use of explosives
Deposition of Earth on one side and excavation on other
Providing temporary obstacle below the cutting edge
Shifting of Wells:
The shifts change span lengths and thereby induce eccentric loads on the
welll steining and the foundation.
The magnitude of the ill effects depends upon the size of the well and depth
to which it is sunk.
If a simple tilt occurs at a certain depth and the sinking continued till
designed foundation depth is reached, the shift at the bottom could be greater
than at top.
The following precautions should be taken to avoid tilts and shifts during
sinking operations:
The outer surface of the well curb and steining should be as regular and smooth as
possible.
The radius of curb should be kept 2 to 4 cm larger than the outside radius of well steining.
The cutting edge of the curb should be uniform in thickness and sharpness.
Requirement of a cofferdam:
The total cost of the construction, maintenance and pumping is the minimum.
Cellular cofferdam
Selection of cofferdam:
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7mFL8r9h8nM
Earthen Cofferdam
•Earthen cofferdams are constructed at the place where the height
of the water is less say 3m and the current velocity is low.
•These dams are built using the local available material such as
clay, fine sand or even soil.
•The height of the dam is kept 1m more than that of max water
level. Freeboard of the dam or the top of the dam is kept 1m so
that the water doesn’t enter the other side even when waves arise.
•The slope is usually given but 1:1 or 1:2. The slope of the water
side is pitched with rubble stones so the water action doesn’t
score the embankment.
• Even sheet piles are driven in the center of the dam to
resist water seepage.
• After the construction of earthen cofferdam, the water
from the other site is pumped out and construction is
executed.
Rockfill Cofferdam
•Rock-fill cofferdams are better than that of earthen dams. These dams are
preferred when the rock is available easily at the construction site.
•These dams are very pervious, to prevent water from seeping an impervious
membrane of soil is provided in the dam.
•The height of the dam is can be up to 3m. The slope can be maintained at
1:1.5 to 1:125.
•The slope on the water side is pitched so as to protect dam from wave action.
Single-Walled Cofferdam
•This type of cofferdam is preferred when the depth of the water
is more than 6m and area of construction is less.
•Usually this is used in construction of bridges. Wooden or
timber sheets are driven into the river bed on the perimeter of the
area of construction.
•On the inside steel or iron sheets are driven into the river bed.
This inside sheets are placed at equal distance with the help of
wales which are bolted to both sheets for either sides.
•To improve the stability of this types of dam, half-filled bags of
sand are placed on the both side of the walls.
•The water from the inside is pumped out and the construction
process is undertaken.
Double-Walled Cofferdam
•Double-walled types of cofferdams are used when the area of
construction site is large and depth of water is high.
•In this place use of single walled cofferdam becomes
uneconomical as the supports are to be increased. So double
walled cofferdam is used.
•The difference in one wall and double wall dam is that her it has
two walls instead of walls for extra stability.
•This type of dams can hold water up to 12m high.
•Two piles are driven inside the water bed with a space in
between and attached each other with wales with bolted
connection.
• As the water depth increases the space between the walls
increases. The space between the walls are filled with soil.
• To prevent the leakage from the ground below, the sheet piles
are driven to a good depth in the bed.
Braced Cofferdam
•When it’s difficult to drive piles inside the bed in the water, then
this type of cofferdam is used.
•In braced cofferdam two piles are driven into the bed and they
are laterally supported with the help of wooden cribs installed in
alternate courses to form pockets.
•The empty pockets here are filled with stone and earth.
•The framework of the cofferdam (made from, logs of wood) is
prepared on ground and then floated to the site where the
cofferdam is to be constructed.
•The layers of sand and the other loose material overlying the
impervious hard bed is dredged out.
• Crib is then sunk to the position, the bottom of each crib is
given a shape to fit in the variation in the surface of bedrock.
After the pit is dewatered, the structure is concreted.
• When concreting has been completed above the water level,
the cofferdam is removed.
Cellular Cofferdam
•When the water layer is more than 20m, common types of
cofferdams are uneconomical to use. In this situations cellular
cofferdams are used.
•This type of dam is used in construction of dams, locks, weirs
etc. Cellular cofferdam is made by driving straight web steel
sheet piles, arranged to form a series of interconnected cells.
• The cells are constructed in various shapes and styles to suit the
requirements of site.
•Finally, the cells are filled with clay, sand or gravel to make
them stable against the various forces to which they are likely to
be subjected to. The two common shapes of the cellular
cofferdam are, (i) Circular type cellular cofferdam. (ii)
Diaphragm type cellular cofferdam.
(i) Circular Type Cellular Cofferdam
•This type of cellular cofferdam consists of circular arcs on
the inner and outer sides which are connected by straight
diaphragm walls.
•The connection between the curved parts and the
diaphragms are made by means of a specially fabricated Y-
element.
•The cofferdam is thus made from interconnected steel
sheet piles.
•The empty spaces are filled with non pervious materials
like clay or sand.
•Due to the filling material the self weight of the
membrane increases and leakage is reduced.
• One advantage of the diaphragm type is that the effective
length of the cofferdam may be increased easily by
lengthening the diaphragm.
• Hence in case, from design consideration it is necessary to
have effective width of the cofferdam more than 21 meter,
diaphragm type of cofferdam must be used.
(ii) Diaphragm Type Cellular Cofferdam
•It consists of a set of large diameter main circular cells interconnected by
arcs of smaller cells.
•The walls of the connecting cells are perpendicular to the walls of the main
circular cells of large diameter.
•The segmental arcs are joined by special T-piles to the main cells. The
circular type cellular cofferdams are self-sustaining, and therefore
independent of the adjacent circular cells.
•Each cell can be filled independently. The stability of such cells is much
greater as compared with that of the diaphragm type.
•However, the circular cells are more expensive than the diaphragm type, as
these require more sheet piles and greater skill in setting and driving the
piles.
• Because the diameter of circular cells is limited by interlock
tension, their ability to resist lateral pressure due to high heads
is limited.
CABLE ANCHORING
Anchors are constructed at locations around each caisson.
At anchor locations soil bearing was carried out by using rotary percussion
type drilling equipment.
Construction:
The required depth of bearing near the caisson location was achieved by using a
standard size of casing pipes of dia 135 mm, length 1500 mm & having thread at
both ends and soil drilling was done by rotary percussion type drilling equipment.
GROUTING
It strengthens and makes the rock or soil water tight and monolithic.
Portland cement grout is useful for crack upto 1.6 mm width only.
Methods:
Cement grouting
Cement grouting:
Inorganic chemicals
Organic chemicals
SHEET PILES
Steel Sheet piles walls are constructed by driving steel sheets into a slope or
excavation.
They are driven into the soil to provide support during excavation.
“The excavation of trenches which required side support & dewatering is termed as
deep excavation.”
Prevention of water oozing or coming out from the sides or bottom of the
trench. It is solved by applying a suitable method of dewatering the trenches.
Timbering of trenches:
1. Stay Bracing
2. Box Sheeting
3. Vertical Sheeting
4. Runners
5. Sheet Piling
DEWATERING OF FOUNDATION EXCAVATIONS
“The process of removing the water from the trench is known as dewatering.”
Vacuum Method
Cement Grouting
Chemical Process
Freezing Process
Electro-Osmosis process
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1) what is meant by jacking (Box & Pipe)?
2) What is meant by trenchless technology?
3) At what conditions, we are going for under water construction?
4) What is the purpose of diaphragm wall?
5) What are the different types of tunneling techniques?
6) Define pile and list out its types.
7) What is the purpose of pile cap?
8) What are the equipments used during tunnel techniques?
9) Define caisson.
10) Define cofferdam.
11) What are the sequential activities that will be carried out during driving well and
caisson at the construction pile?
12) What is the function of sheet piles?
13) Define shoring.
14) Why shoring is adopted for deep cutting?
15) What is the purpose of reservoir?
16) What are the different types of geomembrane?
17) Why membranes are required for large construction of reservoir construction?
18) Give some examples of substructure construction.
19) What is the purpose of well points?
20) What is meant by dewatering?
21) Give an example for underground open excavation.
22) What is meant by stand by plant equipment?
23) List out the projects where you require dewatering.
24) What are the equipments used during shoring?
25) What are the difference between driven piles and bored piles at the point of
construction view?
26) What are the difference between sheet piles and diaphragm walls?
27) What is grouting?
1) Explain box jacking and pipe jacking techniques in detail.
2) Explain tunneling techniques in detail.
3) Bring out briefly the various piling techniques.
4) Explain the construction with help of diaphragm walls, basements and sheet
piles and bring out difference between them.
5) Explain in detail the under water construction sequences.
6) Give a detailed description about various equipments used during driving well
and caissons, sinking cofferdam and shoring for deep cutting.
7) Explain about the dewatering techniques and the importance of well points in
that in detail.
8) Explain various grouting methods used in construction.
9) Explain deep excavation with its different methods of timbering in detail.
10) Explain the problems in sinking of well.
THANKING U