AASTU

CEng 1081
Chapter Two
Measurement of Horizontal Distance
08/08/21 Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal Distance 1
 Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal
08/08/21 2
Distance
Out line

Introduction
Methods of Distance measurement
 Direct method
 Indirect method
Taping
 Taping Accessories
Errors in Taping and their corrections

08/08/21 Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal Distance 3

 Introduction
• One of the fundamentals of surveying is the need to
measure distance
• Distance is one of the basic engineering measurements ,
between two points on earth, in surveying
• Distance is required in many instances, e.g. to give scale to
a network of control points, to fix the position of
topographic detail by offsets or polar coordinates, to set
out the position of a point in construction work, etc.
required in chain surveying, traverse surveying, and other
types of surveying.Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal
08/08/21 4
Distance
 Methods for Distance measurements
The method used for any particular job depends upon
the
. nature of the ground,
. the range,
. the accuracy,
. the number of distances to be measured, the time
available, and
. the cost and the availability of the equipment.
Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal
08/08/21 5
Distance
 Methods for Distance measurements…
• their relative merit depends upon the degree of
precision required.
• Therefore, in general, four methods of making linear
measurements are discussed under:
 In Direct method
A. Approximate methods
B. Optical methods
C. E.D.M. methods
Direct method
D. Taping
Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal
08/08/21 6
Distance
 Methods for Distance measurements…
A. The approximate methods: are commonly used in
reconnaissance surveying for the measurement of
horizontal distances.
• These methods are also used sometimes to detect large
mistakes. Some of them are described as follows:
• Pacing
• Measuring Wheel
• Odometer
• Pedometer Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal
08/08/21 7
Distance
Methods for Distance measurements…
1. Pacing: Pacing is used for rough measurements
and to check accurate measurements
against gross errors.
A person can determine the distance walked by
counting the number of paces made.
The distance can be obtained by multiplying the number
of paces by the average length of the paces.

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 8
Distance
Methods for Distance measurements…

2. Measuring wheel: A measuring wheel consists of a wheel

mounted on a lower end of rod about 1 m long through a fork.
• The upper end of the rod has a handle.
• The wheel is pushed along the ground. The distance traversed is
recorded on the dial attached the wheel. (see, Figure bellow)

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 9
Distance
Methods for Distance measurements…

Digital Measuring Wheel

Analogue Measuring Wheel

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 10
Distance
Methods for Distance measurements…

3. Speedometer: All automobiles have a speedometer to indicate the

speed and the distance travelled. If the ground is smooth, the
Speedometer can be used to measure the distance.

4. Odometer: Based on diameter of tires (no. of revolutions X wheel

diameter); this method gives a fairly reliable result. provided a
check is done periodically on a known length.

B. Optical methods: the distances are measured and the distance is

computed indirectly. (Example: stadia tachometry, Subtence bar).

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 11
Distance
 Methods for Distance measurements…
C. Electro-Magnetic Distance Measuring (EDM): distances
are measured with instruments that rely on propagation,
reflection and subsequent reception of radio waves, light
waves or infrared waves.

b
Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal
08/08/21 12
Distance
Methods for Distance measurements…
D. Taping: distances are actually measured on the ground with the
help of a chain or a tape.
Tapes
• Measuring tapes can be classified
• depending upon the material used in their manufacture.
1. Linen or cloth tapes
2. Glass-fibre tapes
3. Metallic tapes
4. Steel tapes
5. Invar tapes Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal
08/08/21 13
Distance
 Tapes
Linen or cloth tapes: These tapes are made of linen or cloth.
The tape is light and handy but not very accurate.
These tapes are available in length of 10m, 20m, 25m and 30m.
Glass–fibre tapes: These tapes are similar to linen and plastic coated tapes
but they are made of glass-fibre. The tapes are quite flexible, strong
and non-Conductive
Metallic tapes: These tapes are similar to linen tapes but are made of water
proof fabric or glass-fibre in which metallic wires are interwoven.
Steel tapes: The steel tapes are the most commonly used tapes in surveying.
They are more accurate than metallic tapes. The steel tapes are made
of steel or stainless steel strip.
Invar Tapes: Invar tapes are made of an alloy of steel (64%) and nickel
(36%), which has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion. Invar
tapes are used for linear measurements of very high precision

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21
Distance 14
 Tapes
• Tapes are available in lengths up to 1,00 meters;
precision of 1/1,000 to 1/5,000 are commonly obtained.

• For engineering work the lengths are generally

10 m, 30 m, 50 m and 100 m.

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 15
Distance
 Taping accessories

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 16
Distance
Arrows/ Chain Pins Ranging Pole
Clinometers

Tape
Pegs Tension Handler
PLUM BOBS

Hand levels
Spring Balance

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 17
Distance
 Taping accessories
• In addition to a tape, the following small
instruments and accessories are required for the
determination of the length of a line.
– Arrows (Chain pins)

– Pegs

– Ranging rods

– Plumb bobs or rod levels

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal
08/08/21 18
Distance
 Taping accessories...
Ranging Rods: The process of locating a number of points on a long
survey line is called ranging.

Ranging rods: are used to locate intermediate points such that

these points lie on the straight line joining the end stations.
Ranging rods are made of well-seasoned, straight-grained timber.

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 19
Distance
 Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal
08/08/21 20
Distance
 Taping accessories...

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 21
Distance
 Taping accessories...
• Plumb bobs: The plumb bob plays a very important role
in surveying.
• As a freely suspended plumb bob always points towards
the gravity, it indicates the direction of the vertical line.
• In linear measurements plumb bobs are used for
measuring distances on sloping ground.

plumb bob

Ranging rods hold by ranging rod tripods

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal
08/08/21 22
Distance
 Taping accessories...
Arrows (Chain pins): - used to mark the position of the
ends of the tape on the ground.
Pegs: Wooden pegs are used to mark the position of the
survey stations or the end points of the survey
line.

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 23
Distance
 Taping Technique

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 24
Distance
Taping Techniques…

Range pole is set at each end of the line and

the tape is unwind and laid out on the ground
with the zero ends forward.
The front tape person then takes the zero end
of the tape hands one pin to the rear tape
person, and moves forward along the line.

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 25
Distance
 Taping Techniques
Measuring horizontal distance over level ground

• The simplest taping operation is measuring over level

ground where the tape can be stretched out while fully
supported by the ground as shown in the figure below.

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 26
Distance
Taping Techniques…

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 27
Distance
 Taping Techniques…
Measuring horizontal distance over Slope ground
• Consider two point A and B which are several tape
lengths apart along a slope.
• The horizontal distance between the two points can be
measured by supporting the tape at the two ends only
• Assuming that the distance is to be measured downhill,
the front tape person holds one end of the tape at a
comfortable height above the ground so that the straight
line joining the two ends are approximately level.
• Tension is applied and the position of the end of the tape
is transferred by means of a plumb bob to the ground.

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 28
Distance
 Taping Techniques…

• The tape is stretched a second time and the mean of

the two measurements taken.

• It is hardly possible or good practice to hold the tape

more than 5 ft above the ground; if the slope is more
than 5ft per tape length it is necessary to break tape.

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 29
Distance
Taping Techniques Cont…

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 30
Distance
Taping over Sloping Ground

 If the taping is done

over sloping ground
where there is no
underbrush, the
taping must be done
in sections, referred
to as breaking the
tape

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 31
Distance
Taping over Sloping Ground

 Holding the tape more than five feet above the

ground is difficult, therefore slopes greater than 5 ft
per 100 ft will require runs of less than 100 ft

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 32
Distance
Taping over Sloping Ground

Hold the tape level

Use a plumb bob to locate

the point
Height less than
5 feet

40 feet 30 feet 35 feet

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 33
Distance
Corrections For Systematic Errors in Taping

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 34
Distance
Corrections For Systematic Errors in Taping

• Steel tapes are calibrated under a specific temperature

and tension.
• Change in temperature, tension and mode of support
affect the result of taping.
• The errors caused by these sources behave according to
physical laws and can be expressed with mathematic
expressions and those they are systematic errors.

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 35
Distance
Common Systematic Errors in Taping

The common errors in taping are:

- Tape not standard length/erroneous tape-length
(error of standard)
- Tape not horizontal ( error of slop)
- Variation in Temperature ( temperature error)
- Variation in Tension ( tension error)
- Sag in the Tape ( sag error)

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 36
Distance
1. CORRECTION FOR STANDARDIZATION
• Is required if the absolute length or true length
of tape is not equal to the nominal length or the
designated length
• Correction per tape length (C) = l' - l
Where, l = nominal length of the tape
l’ = actual length of the tape
• Total correction in the measured distance (L)
l' l
Ca  ( )L
l
Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal
08/08/21 37
Distance
1. CORRECTION FOR STANDARDIZATION Cont...
Tape too long – recorded measurement (29.9 m) too short

Tape too short – recorded measurement (30.1 m) too long

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 38
Distance
Rules for Standardization Correction
Rule (1) When the tape is too long, the distance
measured appears too short, and the correction
is therefore positive. The reverse is the case
when the tape is too short.
Rule (2) When setting out a distance with a tape the rules
in (1) are reversed.

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 39
Distance
2. CORRECTION FOR TENSION OR PULL
• If a tape is used in the field under a tension different
from the standard tension, the tape will change length
a slight amount, the correction will be:
Cp 
 P  PS  L
AE

Where; P is the tension applied in the field.

Ps is the standard/ calibration tension
A is the cross sectional area of the tape.
E is Young's modulus of elasticity for the tape
material (N/mm2)
To apply this correction a tension handle is needed
Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal
08/08/21 40
. Distance
3. CORRECTION FOR SAG

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 41
Distance
3. CORRECTION FOR SAG
• A tape supported only at the ends will sag in the
centre by an amount that is related to its weight
and the pull (tension).
w 2 L3
Cs  
24P 2

Where; w-the weight of the tape per unit length

L-observed length (unsupported length)
P- tension applied in the field.
Note: Correction for sag is always negative
Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal
08/08/21 42
Distance
4. CORRECTION FOR TEMPERATURE
• If a tape is used at a field temperature different
from the standardization temperature, then the
correction is

Ct  L  T  Ts 
Where:
 - coefficient of thermal expansion
of the tape material
Ts - standard temperature
T - field temperature
Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal
08/08/21 43
Distance
5. CORRECTION FOR SLOPE

When a distance is measured along a uniform slope

C g  S ( 1  Cos )
or
Where;
h: is the difference in height between the end points
S: is the measured slope distance
Cg: is the correction of height due to slope
θ: measured vertical angle

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 44
Distance
Summery of Systematic corrections

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 45
Distance
Degree of Accuracy in Taping
• The degree of accuracy depends up on the
purpose and extent of the work and is expressed
in ratio (1/n).
• If a great deal of taping measurement is take
place, then all the corrections should be applied.

Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal

08/08/21 46
Distance
Q&A

n ks!
08/08/21
T ha
Chapter Two Measurement of Horizontal
47
Distance