TIME MANAGEMENT AND

STRESS MANAGEMENT
Your time and you:
Techniques for improved
time management
 Make a list
● Lists really do work if you use them.
● One of the most important things is to
make sure your list feels attainable.
● Prioritize yours and others’ needs and plan
accordingly.
● You might even want to make three lists —
personal, home and work.
 Set deadlines
● Set a deadline and try your best to
stick to it.
● This allows for the possibility that
other things will get in the way, but
also allow for you still to get the
task done.
 Stop multitasking
●
Multitaskers often seem to think
they get more accomplished, but
it’s not always the most
productive or efficient route.
● our minds work better when we
are truly able to focus and
concentrate on one thing.
Delegate responsibilities
● Delegation is not a sign of
weakness, but a sign of
intelligence.
● Find competent, reliable people
and share some of the
responsibilities.
 Use your downtime

● This tip requires some balance.

● Using all of your downtime for
planning and prioritizing is bad and
can lead to increased stress and
burnout.
● If you have opportunities, make the
best of them, but also remember to
use them for relaxation as needed.
 Reward yourself

● When you accomplish something,

celebrate it!
● How you celebrate is up to you.
● whatever you choose to do healthy,
make sure it’s something you really
enjoy, don’t do it in excess, and don’t
let it cause you to get further behind.
 Developing excellent time management habits

● Start working every day at

the same time
● Use the first 15 minutes to
plan your day
● Keep a to-do list
● Start a timer while you work
● Do the worst task first
 Taking control of your time simulation
● Find out where your time
goes
● Plan ahead.
● Prioritize
● Eliminate the non-essentials
● Set goals
● Carve out email time
● Avoid multitasking
● Act like a consultant
● Just say, “No.”
 Understanding the
Principles of Productivity
 5 Principles of Productivity
1. The quality of your work time is more important than the
quantity of the work time
2. Master your time
3. Eliminate Distractions
4. Take pleasure in the process
5. Avoid comparing yourself with others
 Balancing Work and Home
● Play to your strengths
● Prioritise your time
● Know your peaks and troughs
● Plot some personal time
● Have set work hours – and stick to them
● Find time for your finances
● Manage your time, long term
● Make your workspace work for you
● Tap into technology
● Make exercise a must-do, not a should-do
● Take time to make time
● Know and nurture your network
● Do what you love
● Be realistic
● Step out
● Get a business coach
● Meet clients halfway – literally
● Manage your mind
● Take a break
● Have that holiday
STRESS MANAGEMENT
 Stress - Causes and Impact
❖ Stress is actually a normal part of life. At
times, it serves a useful purpose
❖ Stress can motivate you to get that
promotion at work, or run the last mile of a
marathon.
❖ But if you don't get a handle on your stress
and it becomes long-term, it can seriously
interfere with your job, family life, and
health.
 Causes of stress
● Being unhappy in your job
● Having a heavy workload or too much
responsibility
● Working long hours
● Having poor management, unclear expectations of
your work, or no say in the decision-making
process
● Working under dangerous conditions
● Being insecure about your chance for
advancement or risk of termination
● Having to give speeches in front of colleagues
● Facing discrimination or harassment at work,
especially if your company isn't supportive
 Impact of Stress
● Depression
● High blood pressure
● Abnormal heartbeat (arrhythmia)
● Hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis)
● Heart disease
● Heart attack
● Heartburn, ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome
● Upset stomach -- cramps, constipation, and
diarrhea
● Weight gain or loss
● Fertility problems
● Flare-ups of asthma or arthritis
● Skin problems
10 Tips to Manage Stress
● These days it’s hard not to get overwhelmed once in a while. Between
juggling work, family, and other commitments, you can become too
stressed out and busy.
● But you need to set time aside to unwind or your mental and physical
health can suffer.
● Learning how to manage your stress takes practice, but you can -- and
need to -- do it. Here are 10 ways to make it easier.
1. Exercise
● Working out regularly is one of the best ways to
relax your body and mind. Plus, exercise will
improve your mood. But you have to do it often
for it to pay off.
So how much should you exercise every week?
● Work up to 2 hours and 30 minutes of moderately
intense exercise like brisk walks or 75 minutes of
a more vigorous exercise like swimming laps,
jogging or other sports.
● Focus on setting fitness goals you can meet so
you don’t give up. Most of all remember that
doing any exercise is better than none at all.
2. Relax Your Muscles

When you’re stressed, your muscles get tense. You can help loosen them up on
your own and refresh your body by:

● Stretching
● Enjoying a massage
● Taking a hot bath or shower
● Getting a good night’s sleep
3. Deep Breathing
Stopping and taking a few deep breaths can take the
pressure off you right away. You’ll be surprised how much
better you feel once you get good at it. Just follow these 5
steps:

1. Sit in a comfortable position with your hands in your

lap and your feet on the floor. Or you can lie down.
2. Close your eyes.
3. Imagine yourself in a relaxing place. It can be on the
beach, in a beautiful field of grass, or anywhere that
gives you a peaceful feeling.
4. Slowly take deep breaths in and out.
5. Do this for 5 to 10 minutes at a time.
4. Eat Well

Eating a regular, well-balanced diet will

help you feel better in general. It may also
help control your moods. Your meals
should be full of vegetables, fruit,
whole grains, and lean protein for energy.
And don’t skip any. It’s not good for you
and can put you in a bad mood, which can
actually increase your stress
5. Slow down

Modern life is so busy, and sometimes we just

need to slow down and chill out. Look at your
life and find small ways you can do that. For
example:

● Set your watch 5 to 10 minutes ahead.

That way you’ll get places a little early
and avoid the stress of being late.
● When you’re driving on the highway,
switch to the slow lane so you can avoid
road rage.
● Break down big jobs into smaller ones.
For example, don’t try to answer all 100
emails if you don’t have to -- just answer
a few of them.
6. Take a Break
You need to plan on some real downtime
to give your mind time off from stress. If
you’re a person who likes to set goals, this
may be hard for you at first. But stick with
it and you’ll look forward to these
moments. Restful things you can do
include:

● Meditation
● Yoga
● Prayer
● Listening to your favorite music
● Spending time in nature
7. Make Time for Hobbies
You need to set aside time for things you enjoy. Try
to do something every day that makes you feel good,
and it will help relieve your stress. It doesn’t have to
be a ton of time -- even 15 to 20 minutes will do.
Relaxing hobbies include things like:

● Reading
● Knitting
● Doing an art project
● Playing golf
● Watching a movie
● Doing puzzles
● Playing cards and board games
8. Talk About Your Problems

If things are bothering you, talking about them can

help lower your stress. You can talk to family
members, friends, a trusted clergyman, your
doctor, or a therapist.

And you can also talk to yourself. It’s called self-

talk and we all do it. But in order for self-talk to
help reduce stress you need to make sure it’s
positive and not negative.

So listen closely to what you’re thinking or saying

when you’re stressed out. If you’re giving yourself a
negative message, change it to a positive one. For
example, don’t tell yourself “I can’t do this.” Tell
yourself instead: “I can do this,” or “I’m doing the
best I can.”
9. Go Easy On Yourself

Accept that you can’t do things perfectly no

matter how hard you try. You also can’t
control everything in your life. So do yourself
a favor and stop thinking you can do so much.
And don’t forget to keep up your sense of
humor. Laughter goes a long way towards
making you feel relaxed
10. Eliminate Your Triggers

Figure out what are the biggest causes of stress in

your life. Is it your job, your commute, your
schoolwork? If you’re able to identify what they are,
see if you’re able to eliminate them from your life, or
at least reduce them.

If you can’t identify the main causes of your stress,

try keeping a stress journal. Make note of when you
become most anxious and see if you can determine a
pattern, then find ways to remove or lessen those
triggers.
Stress Management Tips

People can learn to manage stress and lead happier, healthier lives. Here are
some tips to help you keep stress at bay.
● Keep a positive attitude.
● Accept that there are events that you
cannot control.
● Be assertive instead of aggressive.
Assert your feelings, opinions, or
beliefs instead of becoming angry,
defensive, or passive.
● Learn and practice relaxation
techniques; try meditation, yoga for
stress management.
● Exercise regularly. Your body can fight
stress better when it is fit.
● Eat healthy, well-balanced meals.
● Learn to manage your time more
effectively.
● Set limits appropriately and learn to say no to
requests that would create excessive stress in
your life.
● Make time for hobbies, interests, and
relaxation.
● Get enough rest and sleep. Your body needs
time to recover from stressful events.
● Don't rely on alcohol, drugs, or compulsive
behaviors to reduce stress.
● Seek out social support. Spend enough time
with those you enjoy.
● Seek treatment with a psychologist or other
mental health professional trained in
stress management or biofeedback techniques
to learn healthy ways of dealing with the
stress in your life.
Causes and Effects of Stress
Anything that brings on feelings of stress is called a stressor. Today, people often face many stressors.

Your body’s response to stress

When you’re faced with stress, certain chemicals (hormones) in your body are released. These
hormones trigger many changes in your body. For instance, your:

● Blood pressure may rise

● Heart may pound
● Muscles may tighten
● Stomach may become tense
● Concentration may get worse
● Forgetfulness may get worse
Stressors
Stressors may include:

● Adapting to constant, rapid change

● Worrying about your finances and the economy
● Handling a major life event, such as changing jobs or moving to a new home
● Handling more than one major life event at the same time, for instance, dealing with a family illness
while changing jobs
● Juggling many roles and responsibilities, such as spouse or life partner, parent, friend, employee, and
caregiver for aging parents
● Going from one challenging situation to the next without taking time to relax
● Being overwhelmed by technology such as, keeping up with cell phone messages, e-mails, and text
messages
The long-term effects of stress

If you’re often under stress, you need to learn to manage it well. Stress can affect your well-being. Over time, you may show
some of these symptoms of being stressed:

● Physical. Frequent colds or flu, headaches, trouble sleeping, muscle tension, skin problems, trouble with digestion
● Mental. Poor concentration, forgetfulness, learning problems, frequent negative thoughts, speech problems
● Emotional. Anxiety, depression, anger, irritability, feelings of helplessness, lack of purpose, relationship troubles
● Behavioral. Eating poorly, driving recklessly, abusing alcohol or drugs, being accident prone, showing aggression
 Workplace Stress - Five Models
Job stress is heavily associated with workplace environment. Places like New York, Los Angeles, and
London among many other municipalities acknowledge the strong relationship between job stress and
heart attacks. Because workplace stress is the result of many complex interactions between an
individual and a large systematically-operating organization, there are numerous theories propagated
to explain the relation between both.
According to experts, there are five models that explain workplace stress, which are −
● Person Environment Fit Model
● Job Characteristics Model
● Diathesis-Stress Model
● Jobs-Demand Resources Model
● Effort-Reward Imbalance Model
Person Environment Fit Model

According to this model, a person starts to feel stress in a job where his aptitude, skills, abilities and
resources are in-line with the necessities of their job. The job profile he is operating in should be in
accordance to his needs, knowledge and skills-sets.
If these needs are not addressed, then it makes these employees “misfits” in that domain, which results in
lagging behind in performances and not meeting management expectations. These employees end up with
lower productivity, face isolation and resort to denial, as a defense mechanism.
Person–Environment Fit (PE fit) is defined as the degree to which individual and
environmental characteristics match.

Person characteristics may include an individual’s biological or psychological

needs, values, goals, abilities, or personality.

Environmental characteristics could include intrinsic and extrinsic rewards,

demands of a job or role, cultural values, or characteristics of other individuals and
collectives in the person's social environment.

Due to its important implications in the workplace, person–environment fit has

maintained a prominent position in Industrial and Organizational psychology and
related fields
4 Types of Fit
● Person-Job Fit (PJ Fit) fit between an individual’s cultural values and those
that are required to do the actual job
● Person-Organization Fit (PO Fit) fit between an individual’s cultural values
and those of the entire organization
● Person-Group Fit (PG Fit) fit between an individual’s cultural values and
those of their specific work group
● Person-Supervisor Fit (PS Fit) fit between an individual’s cultural values and
those of their manager
Lesson 1: Person-Job Fit
Person–Job Fit is strongly correlated with: job satisfaction (.56), with
organizational commitment (.47), and with intent to quit (-.46)

Lesson: If you want someone to be satisfied with their job, committed to the
organization and not leave, then they need to be a good cultural fit with the job
requirements
Lesson 2: Person Organization Fit
● Person-Organization Fit is strongly correlated with job satisfaction (.44) and
organizational commitment (.51), and more moderately with intent to quit
(−.35)
● Lesson: It’s important for an employee to be a good cultural fit with the
company in order to be satisfied with the job and committed to the
organization
Lesson 3: Person Group Fit
Person-Group Fit is correlated with: job satisfaction (.31), organizational
commitment (. 19) and intent to quit (-.22)

Lesson: When a person (co-worker or job candidate) is aligned with their team in
terms of the way that they're hardwired to communicate, make decisions and
share common preferences for rewards their chances of thriving increases
exponentially
Lesson 4: Person Supervisor Fit
Person-Supervisor Fit had a stronger relationship with job satisfaction (.44) than
organizational commitment (.09)

Lesson: To keep someone happy at their job, they need to be a good cultural fit
with their boss
What can we learn from these lessons?

• Culture fit happens at the level of individual to manager, team, company and job.
• People with higher "fit scores" onboard faster, perform at higher levels, are more
engaged and stay with the company longer.

• From a hiring standpoint, "fit" plays a crucial role in predicting employee

success.
Job Characteristics Model

This model proposes that for an employee to be successful in any job, he needs to have some degree of autonomy and
he should be able to give a feedback which is heard. Such conditions result in job enrichment and employee loyalty. The
absence of these factors can cause work disassociation and drops in productivity.
This model also specifies that numerous talented professionals lose their aptitude towards the same work that they had
once been very interested in, and were good at. The main reason behind this was the attitude of the management.
THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS THEORY
● Hackman and Oldham, both organizational psychologists, developed the job
characteristics theory (JCT) and first introduced it in 1976 in the book “Organizational
Behavior and Human Performance, Vol. 16, Issue 2”.
● According to this theory, “job design has an effect on motivation, work performance, and
job satisfaction.” It has served as a framework for management to identify how certain job
characteristics affect the outcomes of the jobs.
● In a more personal vein, it studies the various factors that make a specific job
satisfying for the organization, and for the person doing the job. Therefore, it
describes the relationship between job characteristics and the responses of individuals
to work or the job being performed.
● The Job Characteristics Theory identified five core job dimensions that prompt three
psychological states which, in turn, lead to or have an effect on five work-related
outcomes or results. As we move forward with the discussion, we will expound on
these further.
● Out of this theory, the Job Characteristics Model, which is still in full use today, was
also introduced. Basically, this model specifies the conditions under which workers
or individuals will be internally motivate to perform their jobs effectively.
THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL
The Job Characteristics Model was verified when Hackman and Oldham tested it on 658
employees, who are working in 62 different jobs in 7 different businesses or organizations. The
results were deemed to be reliable and conclusive, which is the reason why it still holds a lot of
weight today, despite the number of other job design theories introduced.
In order to get a full picture of the Job Characteristics Model,
we have to go break down its composition: the five core job
characteristics or dimensions, the five work-related outcomes,
and the three psychological states.
Five Core Job Characteristics
Hackman and Oldham provided clear definitions on the five job dimensions or characteristics.

#1. Skill variety

● This refers to the “degree to which a job requires a variety of different
activities in carrying out the work, involving the use of a number of
different skills and talents of a person”. Therefore, it follows that the
individual will be required to develop a variety of talents and skills.
● This area asks the number of skills and talents that the job requires of the
person that will be working on it. A quick giveaway would be to assess
whether the job is monotonous and repetitive or if it asks the worker to
do a number of different tasks or actions.
● Compare two individuals working two different jobs. Job A is pretty much
elementary, with the tasks being performed in a routine and repetitive manner. It does
not demand much skill or ability. Job B, on the other hand, is quite complex,
requiring that the worker be in possession of several skills or abilities. Who, between
the two workers, will have greater chances of experiencing meaningfulness in their
jobs?
● That’s correct. It’s the one working on Job B, since it requires variety in skills.
2. Task identity
This is the “degree to which the job requires completion of a whole, identifiable piece of work;
that is, doing a job from beginning to end with visible outcome”. This involves being able to
work on an entire work process, rather than just on bits and pieces of it. Therefore, it is
important to assess whether the job or task has a clearly defined beginning, middle and end.

Workers tend to find more meaning in their jobs when they can identify a complete and visible
outcome at the end of the day, or of a work cycle. Let us say, for example, that two workers are
involved in the same work process. Worker A is responsible for only a small part of the work,
probably in the first phase. Worker B, on the other hand, is involved throughout the entire
process.
Between the two, Worker B is more likely to find his job meaningful, because he can see a
visible outcome, and he feels more involved in the completion of the process. For him, a job
that he is able to complete, from beginning to end, seems more worthwhile, than simply
working on Phase 1, then not having a hand on the rest of the process. In fact, he may not even
be aware whether the process has been completed or not, because he is focused on his assigned
phase of the process.
Task significance
● Task significance is said to be the “degree to which the job has a
substantial impact on the lives of other people, whether those people
are in the immediate organization or in the world at large”. The task –
and the job – is significant if it can affect other people’s lives. And it
should not just be the people within the organization, but even those
outside.
● For many, a job holds more meaning if it can help improve the well-
being of other people (not just himself), whether physically,
psychologically, or emotionally. Knowing that their job, and their
performance thereof, has the capacity to have a positive impact on
others will motivate them further to do better.
● Individuals who put great stock on task significance are very keen on
finding out whether the job that they are doing actually matters to other
people. For them, meaning comes in the form of recognition by other
people.
4. Autonomy
● This pertains to the “degree to which the job provides substantial freedom,
independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in
determining the procedure to be used in carrying it out”.
● Autonomy is often seen in positions with managerial, supervisorial and ministerial
functions. Examples of jobs with high levels of autonomy are managers, team leaders,
supervising officers, division and department heads, and senior management. These
jobs tend to become more meaningful to the ones performing them because they feel
greater personal responsibility for their own actions on the job.
● But it’s not just limited to people in managerial positions. Even workers have a strong
sense of personal responsibility if they are left to perform their tasks using their own
efforts and initiatives, and they are allowed to make the decisions and call the shots.
● They will definitely feel less of this autonomy if they are made to meekly follow the
instructions of a supervisor, or adhere strictly to what a job procedures manual
provides. This will not help them feel responsible for their actions at all.
5.Feedback
Job feedback refers to the

“degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job provides the

individual with direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her

performance”.
● As much as possible, workers would like to be kept in the loop on their performance of the job.
● Not only will this keep them apprised of their progress as workers, it is also one way for them to boost
their self-esteem. If they are told by their supervisors or managers that they are going a good job, they
are likely to feel motivated to continue with how they are doing so far.
● In contrast, if they are told that they are not performing as expected, then they will respond
accordingly and improve their performance.
If all five characteristics are lumped or combined together, we will be able to come up with a single
figure or index that will act as the indicator of the overall motivating potential of the job being
evaluated or redesigned. This index will essentially show the possibility or likelihood of a job
affecting the attitudes and behaviors of the employee or worker.

This figure or index is called the MPS, or the “motivating potential score”.

Using all five core job characteristics, the formula for the MPS is:

MPS = (Skill variety + Task identity + Task significance)/3 X Autonomy X Feedback

The following propositions can be gleaned from the formula:

· If all five core job characteristics are high, there is a high probability that the worker will
experience the three psychological states. This will naturally result to positive outcomes.

· In order for a job to be considered to have high motivating potential, at least one among Skill
Variety, Task Identity and Task Significance) should also be high. However, it is a given that the job
should also be high on both Autonomy and Feedback. A low score on any of the two will pull the
MPS down.

· A low score on any one of the three does not automatically mean that the job will have a low
motivating potential, since it could be offset by a high score on any of the other two.
Three Critical Psychological States
● According to Faturochman, the only way for the desirable outcomes to appear or materialize is for the
individual to experience all three psychological states, and the only way to experience these states, is
to possess the core job characteristics.
● Hackman and Oldham also mentioned motivation, which will definitely be high among individuals
who are able to experience these psychological states.
Psychological State 1. Experience meaningfulness of work
● Individuals have to feel that, when they are working, they
are doing something meaningful. They feel that their
work, in and of itself, is meaningful. This means that they
have to feel that what they are doing is generally
worthwhile or of value. It should also hold some
importance or significance, especially with respect to a
system or a set of values that the individual, on a personal
level, believes in or accepts.
● Looking at the diagram of the model, we can easily see
that there is a connection between meaningfulness of
work and the first three core job characteristics. In short,
a worker will be able to find more meaning in his job if
skill variety, task identity and task significance are
present.
 Meaningfulness of work and Skill Variety:

● Not only should the job require a variety of skills and talents; it should also
have the appropriate number of skills and talents, and the appropriate skills
and talents.
● Basically, requiring too many skills and talents may make the job too
overwhelming and complex, so the worker will have difficulty keeping up
with it. On the other hand, a job that requires too little skills and talents may
make it too boring and not challenging at all.
● In the same vein, the skills and talents should be a fit for the job itself. There would
be no point requiring a skill or talent that will not contribute to the accomplishment
of a task.
● Take, for example, the job of a chauffeur. Driving is the most basic skill required of
him, but in many organizations, they may also require the driver to have mechanical
troubleshooting skills and a talent for making conversation, especially when the
nature of their job requires them to drive guests and visitors around the city.
Meaningfulness of work and Task Identity:
● The worker will feel more pride in their work when
they are able to identify it wholly and completely.
● Another example given in several write-ups is the
manufacture of a washing machine. In the assembly
line of a washing machine manufacturing company,
there is one worker whose only task is to add one nut
to one bolt, in the exact same spot. If he has to do this
one thing repetitively, throughout a six- to eight-hour
shift, he will be less motivated than, say, another
worker who is in charge of attaching the drum and
other parts.
Meaningfulness of work and Task Significance:
● Say, for example, that an employee is tasked to create project
proposals, with the knowledge that these proposals are likely
to be approved and implemented, and will result to the
company’s earnings increasing and, as a result, everyone’s
bonuses also going up.
● Task significance is going to be high, because the employee is
aware that the results of his job will benefit not only himself,
but other employees of the company as well. He will therefore
find his job more meaningful and will be more motivated to
come up with excellent project proposals
Psychological State 2. Experienced responsibility for
outcomes of the work
● We are not talking here of just about any type of responsibility. In
the context of the JCM, we are speaking of personal responsibility.
The individual has to feel personally accountable for the outcomes
or results of his work, or the tasks that he is doing.
● Freedom and autonomy is given in the performance of one’s job.
The worker will then use this freedom of action to make decisions
on how to perform the job, such as making changes in the process,
deciding on scheduling, and applying certain principles that he
deems appropriate and beneficial to the accomplishment of the
task.
● However, together with this freedom and autonomy is a sense of
responsibility. Depending on the decisions made by the worker, he
or she will be responsible for the results, whether it is a success or
a failure.
Psychological State 3. Knowledge of the actual results or outcomes
It is a given that knowing the results or outcomes of your job will help you track or monitor your
effectiveness in your job. It will also help you evaluate your job performance better.

Having knowledge of the outcomes is important because:

1. It will ensure that the worker is fully aware of the success (or failure) of his work and, in the process,
allow them to learn from his mistakes.

2. It will allow the worker to connect, on an emotional level, with the customers or end users of their
outputs. Consequently, this will let them find more meaning in their work.
Now let us take these three psychological states and relate them with the core job characteristics.

The first three core job characteristics – skill variety, task identity and task significance – have a direct
impact on the individual worker’s experienced meaningfulness of work.

Meanwhile, the amount of autonomy he enjoys will have an effect on the individual’s experienced
responsibility towards work outcomes or results. The fifth core job characteristic – feedback – leads to the
individual gaining knowledge of the actual results of the work-related activities of the job.
Work-Related Outcomes
Originally, the proponents of the JCT proposed five possible work-related outcomes.

1. Internal Work Motivation: An employee may derive motivation to perform his work from external
sources. However, the best type of motivation would still be intrinsic motivation, which comes internally, or
naturally in a worker.

2. Job Satisfaction: The simple definition of job satisfaction is the level of contentment of an employee
with his or her job. Hulin and Judge, however, gave a more complex definition, referring to it as a multi-
dimensional psychological response to one’s job, and these responses could either be cognitive, affective or
behavioral.

3. Performance Quality: This outcome focuses on the overall quality of how the work was performed.
Was it effective? Was it efficient? Were the targets achieved? Were the standards of quality adhered to?
4. Absenteeism: A highly motivated worker will definitely register low absenteeism. Usually,
workers who are bored with their work, or not challenged at all, will not have the enthusiasm that
pushes them to get up each morning to go to work. They will not look forward to the work day
ahead and, as a result, are more than likely to just not go to work altogether. Of course, it goes
without saying that absenteeism is one of the primary reasons for low productivity.

5. Turnover: In any case, a company that registers a high turnover rate in personnel means that
there are problems on how its human resources are managed. It could be that the poor job design
does not motivate workers to stay long with the company. Thus, they will look for other jobs in
other companies or industries.
High turnover also means ultimately higher costs and inefficiencies for an organization. It means
they have to frequently recruit and hire people and train the ones that are hired. After a few
months, after the employees leave and new ones are hired, another round of training will take
place. This will definitely mean more training costs to the company, not to mention severance
packages for those who left.
In 1980, however, a revision of the theory and model had the number of outcomes going
from five to four. Absenteeism and turnover are removed, and performance quality is broken
down into two:

1. Quality of Work: How is the work performed? Are the standards of quality set by the
company met?

2. Quantity of Work: How much of the work was performed? Was the worker able to
complete the expected amount of work within the time allotted, without compromising on
quality?
The heart of the Job Characteristics Model entails designing (or redesigning) the job in a
manner where the core job characteristics are a perfect and complementary fit to the
individual’s or worker’s psychological state and, in the process, lead to the achievement of
positive and desired outcomes or results.
 Moderators
● The theory is not all cut and dried, however, because even the brains behind the JCT recognized
that there will be varying responses to jobs that are deemed to have high motivating potential. In
short, some employees may respond positively, but there may also be those who would not be
affected in the same way.
● They addressed this gray area by pointing out that there are inherent traits or characteristics among
individuals that will help bridge that divide often seen between the job characteristics and the
psychological states. They called these the “moderators”.
 1. Knowledge and skills needed to perform the work or task required in the
job
● The moderator is the level of knowledge and skill that the individual possesses, relevant to the job.
Individuals who possess the skills, knowledge and competence in their performance of their job are
more likely to feel positively towards their job and, in turn, this will pave the way for obtaining good
or better results.
● In contrast, if the person performing the job has insufficient knowledge and skill towards the job,
there is a low chance of him experiencing the psychological states. He can also expect less than
stellar, and even negative, results or outcomes.
2. Growth need strength
According to the theory, Growth Need Strength (GNS) moderates the relationship between core job characteristics and the
psychological states. At the same time, it also moderates the relationship between the psychological states and the possible results or
outcomes.

This answers the following questions:

· How strongly does the individual want to accomplish something?

· How much does the individual hunger for personal learning and development?
“Growth need strength” is defined as the degree to which people have a need for personal growth and development. Individuals who
are “hungrier”, or those who have high growth need strength, are more likely to have a more enthusiastic response to various
opportunities that come their way. They have a greater thirst for personal accomplishment, and they will see the job as an excellent
tool for learning and development.
. “Context” satisfaction
● The context we are talking about here is “work context” or “job context”, and they often include
job security, pay or compensation, the co-workers, and the managers. It means that individuals
may be motivated by internal aspects, but that does not mean they completely ignore the
external ones.
● Individuals are also inclined to respond positively if they are satisfied by the contextual factors
mentioned. For example, if they feel that they are
being paid an amount commensurate to their job, then they will be more motivated to perform
better. If they are satisfied with the quality of leadership that the supervisor is demonstrating,
then they are also likely to improve their performance at work as part of the team.
● The rule of thumb is that, the higher the moderator levels are, the higher will also be the
likelihood of the three psychological states to be experienced by the individual.
● Individuals that exhibit high levels in the moderator variables (knowledge and skills, growth
need strength and work context satisfaction) are more likely to have a more positive response in
their experience of the psychological outcomes. This also means that they can expect better
outcomes or results
Diathesis-Stress Model

This model makes a distinction between stressful job conditions and individual strains. Strains can be mental, physical or
emotional and most of the times, these strains change from person to person.
The significant strains among them are −
● Excessive Workload
● Disagreeable Workplace Environments
● Lack of Autonomy
● Difficult Relationships with Coworkers
● Lack of Career Growth
● Low Chances of Personal Growth while Working and
● Harassment from Management.
Jobs-Demand Resources Model

This model posits that workplace stress can be associated to the difference of job demands and resources. Experienced
at managerial levels, it is caused when a bully management expects managers to deliver high results with low resources.
In other words, there is a severely skewed ration between job demands and job resources. Even good managers cannot
deal with this stress and end up stressed.
Effort-Reward Imbalance Model

This model focuses on the relation between efforts and rewards.

When employees put in hard work, they expect management to
reward their efforts. In absence of any such reward program, the
employees get demotivated and underperform.

It is not enough in today’s world to expect good output from

employees as a “part of the job”. Companies that think they are
entitled to get good output from employees just because they pay
them, need to realize that it is not paying, but compensating them
for their time, i.e. the employees could have done something way
more productive with the time they spend in the company.
The Stress Model